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-'>•■■'  -■'.        ■■-      ■  >;    .    ■■.•-'   .'     -^  •;'.  •  ;i  »■     ■•.•:,>',-T'TT/','»rtW  *'; 


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THE    PEOPLE    OF    TUKKEY. 


THE 


PEOPLE    OF    TUEKEY: 


TWENTY    YEAKS'     RESIDENCE 

AMONG 

BULGARIANS,    GREEKS,    ALBANIANS,    TURKS, 
AND    ARMENIANS. 


By   a   CONSUL'S    DAUGHTER   and   WIFE. 


EDITED   BY 

STANLEY    LANE    POOLE. 


IN    TWO    VOLUMES. 
VOL.    I. 


JUNIOR  ;(»)' 


LONDON : 
JOHN    MURRAY,    ALBEMARLE     STREET. 

1878. 

{The  Eight  of  Translation  is  Eeservcd.'] 


LONDON  : 
BRADHUI'.y,    ACNF.W,    &   CO.,    I'lUNTKliP,   WHITEFKIARS. 


\/. 


DEDICATED 

(3u  permission) 


TO 


THE    MARCHIONESS   OF    SALISBURY, 


BY  HER  GRATEFUL  SERVANT' 


THE  AUTHOR. 


PEEFACE. 


Ts'o  one  wlio  has  talked  witli  many  people  on 
the  Eastern  Question  can  have  failed  to  remark 
the  wide  difference  of  opinion  held  on  things 
which  ought  to  he  matters  of  certaint}^, — on 
which  two  opinions  ought  to  he  im_possi])le.  This 
divergence  of  view  is  only  a  very  natural  conse- 
quence of  the  Avant  of  any  book  of  authority  on 
the  subject.  How  is  one  to  learn  what  manner 
of  men  these  Bulgarians  and  Greeks  of  Turkey 
really  are  ?  Hitherto  our  information  has  been 
chiefly  obtained  from  newspaper  correspondents  : 
and  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  observe  that  the 
nature  of  their  selected  information  depends  upon 
the  tendency  of  the  paper.  There  have,  of 
course,  been  notable  exceptions  to  this  common 
rule  of  a  party-conscience :  the  world  of  journa- 
lists is  but  now  lamenting  the  untimely  death  of 
one  of  its  most  distinguished  members,  with 
whose  name  honour  and  truth  and  indefatigable 


\\n  Preface. 

tlioroiifflmoss  must  ever  be  associatotl.  But 
granting  tlie  honesty  and  impartiality  of  a  corre- 
spondent, allowing  the  acciu-acy  of  his  report  of 
what  he  has  seen,  it  must  be  conceded  that  his 
opportunities  for  observation  are  short  and  hur- 
ried, that  he  judges  almost  solely  from  the 
immediate  present,  and  that  by  the  nature  of  his 
profession  he  is  seldom  able  to  make  a  very  long 
or  intimate  study  of  a  people's  character.  One 
accepts  his  reports  as  the  evidence  of  an  eye- 
witness; but  one  does  not  necessarily  pledge 
oneself  to  his  deductions.  For  the  former  he 
has  every  necessary  qualification  :  for  the  latter 
he  may  have  none,  and  he  probably  has  not 
the  most  important.  Especially  unsafe  is  it  to 
trust  to  estimates  of  nations  formed  hastily  on 
insufficient  experience  in  the  midst  of  general 
disorder  such  as  that  in  which  many  summary 
verdicts  have  lately  been  composed. 

Eut  if  newspaper  correspondents  are  placed  at 
some  disadvantage,  what  can  be  said  for  those 
well-assm-ed  travellers  who  pay  a  three  months' 
visit  to  Tm-key,  spend  the  time  pleasantly  at 
Pera,  or  perhaps  at  the  country-houses  of  Pashas, 


Preface.  ix 

and  then  consider  themselves  qnalificd  to  judge 
the  merits  of  each  class  in  each  nationality  of 
the  mixed  inhabitants  of  the  land?  It  is  im- 
pleasant  to  have  to  say  it :  but  it  is  well  known 
that  scarcely  a  single  book  npon  Tni-key  is  based 
upon  a  much  longer  experience  than  three 
months. 

In  this  dearth  of  trustworthy  information,  it 
was  with  no  little  interest  that  I  learnt  that  an 
English  lady,  who  had  lived  for  a  great  part  of 
her  life  in  various  provinces  of  Eiu'opean  and 
Asiatic  Turkey,  and  whose  linguistic  powers  per- 
fected by  experience  enabled  her  to  converse 
equally  with  Greeks,  Tiu^ks,  and  Bulgarians  as 
one  of  themselves,  had  formed  a  collection  of 
notes  on  the  people  of  Tiu'key — on  theii'  national 
characteristics,  their  manners  and  customs,  edu- 
cation, religion,  thcii-  aims  and  ambitions.  In 
any  case  the  observations  of  one  who  had  for 
more  than  twenty  years  enjoyed  such  excep- 
tional advantages  must  be  valuable.  Of  the 
opportunities  of  the  Author  there  could  be  as 
little  doubt  as  of  her  conscientious  acciu\acy  in 
recording   her   experience.      The   only   question 


X  Pj'cfacc. 

was  not  the  quality  but  tlic  quantity  of  the  infor- 
mation. Eut  in  this  the  manuscript  surpassed 
all  expectations.  Every  page  teemed  with  details 
of  life  and  character  entirely  novel  to  all  but 
Eastern  travellers,  and  much  that  even  to  them 
must  be  entii-ely  unknown.  Every  subject  con- 
nected with  the  j^eople  of  Turkey  seemed  to  be 
fully  treated,  and  it  was  rarely  that  any  need  for 
more  ample  information  was  felt. 

In  editing  what,  as  I  have  had  nothing  to  do 
with  the  matter  of  it,  I  may  without  vanity  call 
the  most  valuable  work  on  the  people  of  Turkey 
that  has  yet  appeared,  I  have  strictly  kept  in 
view  the  principle  laid  down  by  the  Author  — 
that  the  book  was  to  be  a  collection  of  facts, 
not  a  vehicle  for  party  views  on  the  Eastern 
Question,  nor  a  recipe  for  the  harmonious  arrange- 
ment of  South-Eastern  Europe.  Politically  the 
book  is  entirely  coloui-less.  It  was  felt  that 
thus  only  could  it  commend  itself  to  both,  or 
rather  all,  the  disputing  parties,  and  that  only 
by  delicately  avoiding  the  suscej^tible  jooints  of 
each  party  could  the  book  attain  its  end — of 
generally  imparting  a  certain  amount  of  sound 


Preface.  xl 

information  on  the  worst-known  subject  of  the 
day. 

The  reader,  therefore,  must  not  expect  to  find 
here  a  defence  of  Tiu-kish  rule  nor  yet  an  attack 
thereon :  he  will  only  find  an  account  of  how  the 
Turks  do  rule,  with  a  few  incidental  illustrations 
scattered  throughout  the  book.  Comment  is,  as 
a  rule,  eschewed  as  superfluous  and  insulting  to 
the  intelligence  of  the  reader.  Still  less  must  he 
look  for  any  expression  of  opinion  on  the  wisdom 
or  folly  of  the  policy  of  Her  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment. All  these  things  are  apart  from  the  aim 
of  the  work.  It  is  wished  to  provide  the  data 
necessary  to  the  formation  of  any  worthy  views 
on  the  many  sub-divisions  of  the  Eastern  Ques- 
tion. It  is  not  wished  to  point  the  moral.  Once 
conversant  with  the  actual  state  of  the  people  of 
Tui'key,  once  knowing  how  they  live,  what  arc 
their  vii'tues  and  vices,  what  their  aims  and 
hopes,  and  it  is  easy  for  any  rational  man  to 
draw  his  conclusions :  easy  to  criticise  favourably 
or  otherwise  according  to  the  merits  of  the  case 
the  policy  of  the  British  Government  towards 
Turkey  and  towards  Greece,  to  decide  whether 


xii  Preface. 

after  all  the  supposed  rising  in  Bulgaria  (of  the 
details  of  which  little  is  said  here,  because  every- 
thing has  already  been  well  said)  was  ever  a 
rising  at  all ;  whether  the  Turks  are  or  are  not 
incapable  of  the  amenities  wliich  many  believe 
them  to  have  then  displayed ;  Avhether  the  Bul- 
garians are  fiiendly  to  Eussia,  or  are  really  the 
very  humble  servants  of  the  Porte;  in  short, 
whether  half  the  questions  which  have  for  two 
years  been  the  subject  of  perpetual  contention 
admit  of  debate  at  all. 

The  book  has  been  divided  into  four  parts.  In 
the  first,  the  general  characteristics  of  the  various 
races  of  Tui'key  are  sketched.  Very  little  is 
said  about  their  history,  for  it  is  not  the  history 
but  the  present  state  of  the  j)eople — or  rather  the 
state  just  before  the  war — that  is  the  subject 
of  the  book.  The  Author  has  tried  to  bring 
home  to  the  reader  the  social  condition  and  the 
national  character  of  these  different  races.  The 
Bulgarians,  Greeks,  Albanians,  Tui-ks,  Arme- 
nians, and  Jews,  are  in  turn  described ;  and  the, 
for  the  time,  scarcely  less  important  Cii'cassians, 
with  the  Tatars  and  Gipsies,  have  theu'  chapter. 


Preface.  xlli 

In  the  second  part,  the  tenui'e  of  land  and  the 
state  of  the  small  peasant  farmers  are  explained, 
and  an  acconnt  is  given  of  houses  and  hovels  in 
Tni-key,  including  that  most  superb  of  Turkish 
houses,  the  Seraglio  of  the  Sultan,  to  which  with 
its  inmates  a  very  detailed  notice  is  devoted  ; 
and  the  j^art  ends  with  an  account  of  Munici- 
pality and  Police  in  Tiu'key,  together  with  the 
kindi'ed  subject  of  Brigandage. 
^  The  third  part  is  occupied  with  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  races.  Few  things  give  such 
an  insight  into  the  character  of  a  people  as  a 
study  of  their  customs,  and  it  is  believed  that 
these  chapters  on  the  extraordinary  ceremonies 
employed  in  Tui-key  on  the  occasion  of  a  birth  or 
marriage  or  a  death,  on  the  di'ess,  food,  and  amuse- 
ments, of  the  Greeks,  Bulgarians,  Turks,  and  Ar- 
menians will  prove  of  as  much  valne  as  interest. 
The  fact,  for  example,  that  in  many  parts  of  Bul- 
garia the  weddings  take  place  not  in  the  chuixh 
but  in  the  cellar  of  the  bridegroom's  house  speaks 
volumes  on  the  insecuiity  of  a  woman's  person 
while  Tiu'kish  governors  rule  in  Bulgarian  towns. 
The  custom  of  the  Albanian  bridegroom  flingiDg 


xiv  Preface. 

a  lialtcr  over  his  bride's  neck  and  dragging  her 
into  his  house  is  an  interesting  relic  of  capture, 
and  the  subsequent  knocking  of  the  bride's  head 
against  the  wall  as  a  warning  against  infidelity 
illustrates  the  general  chastity  of  the  people. 
The  indecent  exhibitions,  again,  at  Tiuddsh  wed- 
dings help  to  explain  the  want  of  refinement  and 
womanly  feeling  among  Tui'kish  ladies.  The 
ceremonies  of  the  Greeks  are  interesting  from 
another  point  of  view,  inasmuch  as  very  many  of 
them  are  identical  mth  those  of  the  ancient 
Greeks. 

The  last  part  is  devoted  to  the  education, 
superstition,  and  religion  of  the  people  of  Tui'key. 
It  is  here  that  we  get  to  the  root  of  Tm-kish 
manners ;  for  we  see  how  the  Tiu-k  is  brought 
up,  how  he  learns  the  vices  that  have  become 
identified  with  the  thought  of  his  race,  how  he 
remains,  in  spite  even  of  a  western  education, 
deeply  imbued  with  superstition,  and  finally  how 
he  loses  all  the  energy  of  the  old  OthmanK  cha- 
racter by  the  operation  of  the  fatal  doctrine  of 
Kismet.  The  chapters  on  Education  are  among 
the  most  valuable  in  the  book;  whilst  those  on 


Preface.  xv 

Eeligion  will  serve  to  exj^lain  some  of  the  diffi- 
culties that  beset  the  proper  adjustment  of  affaii's 
in  South-Eastern  Europe. 

The  study  of  the  facts  thus  brought  together 
points  to  a  considerable  modification  of  the  views 
commonly  entertained  with  regard  to  the  charac- 
ters of  the  peoples  of  Turkey.  The  Author's  long 
experience  leaves  no  doubt  of  the  vast  superiority 
of  the  Greeks  to  the  other  races ;  yet  there  is  no 
people  that  one  is  more  accustomed  to  hear  spoken 
of  with  distrust  and  even  contempt.     The  Greeks 
are  commonly  charged  with  a  partiality  for  sharp 
practice,  and  with  intolerable  vanity ;  their  cha- 
racter is  summed  up  as  petty.    There  is  always  a 
grain  of  truth  in  a  calunmy  :  when  plenty  of  mud 
is  throAvn  some  of  it  sticks,  not  because  of  the 
quantity  of  the  mud,  but  because  there  is  sure  to 
be  an  adhesive  sympathy  with  some  part  of  the 
object  of  the  attack.   The  Greeks  have  in  some  de- 
gree laid  themselves  open  to  these  charges.   It  was 
very  unwise  of  them  to  take  the  fii'st  rank  as  mer- 
chants in  the  East,  and  thus  arouse  the  jealousy  of 
the  merchants  of  all  Em-opcan  nations,  whom  they 
have  eclipsed  by  their  superior  business  capacities. 


XV  i  Preface. 

Envy  "will  pick  holes  anywhere,  but  it  is  espe- 
cially easy  to  criticise  the  customs  of  a  merchant 
class.     Mercantile  morality  all  over  the  world  is 
a  thing  of  itself,  not  generally  understauded  of 
the  people.     But  there  is  nothing  to  show  that 
the  Greek  merchants   are   less  scrupulous  than 
the  rest,  though  their  temptations  are  infinitely 
greater.     If  a  little  shaqD  business  is  said  to  be 
permissible,  and  even  perhaps  necessary,  at  Liver- 
pool  for  instance,  it   is    a  fortiori  essential   in 
Tui'key.     It  is  a  perfectly  well-understood  prin- 
ciple that  in  Tui^key,  where  everything  is  done 
by  bribery  and  corruption,  a  merchant,  unless  he 
wishes  to  be  ruined,  must  steer  a  somewhat  oblique 
course.    So  long  as  the  late  Turkish  rule  extended 
over  Greek  subjects,  it  was  necessary  to  do  in 
Tui'key  as  the  Tiu-ks  do.    Fi'cnch  and  English  mer- 
chants sin  as  much  as  the  Greeks  in  this  manner ; 
but  the  superior  commercial  ability  of  the  Greeks 
and  their  consequent  success  have  di-awn  on  them 
the  whole  evil  repute.     It  is  not  that  the  Greeks 
cheat  more  than  other  commercial  nations :  it  is 
merely  that  they  make  more  money  on  the  same 
amount  of  cheating.     Ilinc  illae  lacrumae  1 


Preface.  xvil 

The  Greeks,  again,  are  certainly  conceited,  and 
mth  excellent  reason.  It  wonld  be  absurd  to 
expect  anything  else.  They  are  but  newly  freed ; 
after  centmies  of  Ottoman  tyranny,  followed  by 
a  generation  of  Bavarian  despotism,  they  have  at 
last  been  allowed  to  enjoy  some  fifteen  years  of 
freedom.  Even  imder  the  stiff  court  of  Otho, 
but  much  more  dming  the  last  fifteen  years,  they 
have  made  prodigious  progress.  Having  worked 
out  their  own  fi'cedom,  they  have  been  making 
themselves  fit  for  fi-eedom.  From  craven  slaves 
of  the  Tiu-k  they  have  become  a  liberty -loving 
people.  Their  thoughts  have  been  casting  back 
to  the  noble  ancestry  which  they  claim  as  their 
0A\Ti,  and  looking  onward  to  the  great  future  that 
is  in  store  for  them.  They  have  measured  them- 
selves intellectually  with  the  rest  of  Europe  and 
they  have  not  been  worsted.  They  have  spent  the 
last  twenty  years  in  the  work  of  self-education, 
and  so  successful  have  been  their  efforts  that  it 
is  well  known  that  no  nation  can  compare  with 
Greece  in  the  general  education  of  its  people — 
that  to  Greece  alone  can  be  applied  the  ambiguous 
taunt  that  she  is  over-educated. 

VOL.  I.  6 


xviii  Preface. 

All  these  things  are  legitimate  subjects  of 
pride.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the  Greeks  are 
A-ain  of  their  adopted  ancestors  ;  no  marvel  that 
they  are  proud  of  their  keen  wits  and  facile  in- 
telligence. They  have  formed  a  justly  high 
estimate  of  their  national  worth,  and  arc  justly 
proud  of  the  progress  they  have  already  made ; 
and  they  take  no  pains  to  conceal  it.  Tlieii- 
faults  are  only  exaggerations  of  national  virtues, 
the  outcome  of  the  reaction  from  a  long  servitude ; 
they  are  the  necessary  but  temporary  result  of 
the  circumstances.  A  little  time  for  development, 
a  closer  association  "wdtli  the  other  powers  of 
Eiu'ope,  and  a  worthier  trust  on  the  part  of  these, 
and  the  Greeks  will  lose  theii-  blemishes  of 
youth ;  conceit  will  be  toned  down  to  a  proper 
pride,  and  high  intelligence  will  no  longer  be  called 
over-cleverness.  The  nation  has  marched  steadily 
forward  in  the  little  time  it  has  been  free  ;  it  has 
made  great  steps  in  educating  itself  and  in  spread- 
ing knowledge  among  its  members  still  subject  to 
the  alien;  it  has  shown  itself  able  to  gOA^ern 
itself,  even  to  restram  itself  under  terrible  pro- 
A^ocation    Avhen  there    Avas    much   to    gain   and 


Preface.  xix 

little  that  could  bo  lost.  If  it  is  given  fair  play, 
the  time  may  yet  come  when  a  seventh  Great 
Power  shall  arise  in  Europe,  Avheu  the  Greeks 
shall  again  rule  in  Byzantium,  and  Europe  shall 
know  that  the  name  of  Hellenes  is  still  a  sacred 
name. 

The  Author's  account  of  the  Bulgarians  differs 
little  from  the  ordinary  opinion,  except  on  one 
important  point.  She  describes  them  as  honest 
hardworking  peasants,  rather  sIoav  and  stupid,  but 
excellent  labourers.  But  she  absolutely  denies 
the  ferocious  character  ascribed  to  them  by  some 
A\'riters.  Everyone  knows  that  they  exacted  a 
terrible  vengeance  from  the  Turks,  and  no  man  of 
spirit  can  blame  them  for  it ;  though  it  is  much 
to  be  regretted  that,  if  the  accounts  be  true,  they 
carried  their  revenge  to  the  length  of  Turkish 
barbarity.  But  tliis  was  an  exceptional  time :  it 
has  had  its  parallel  in  most  nations,  as  those  Avho 
remember  the  feeling  in  England  at  the  time  of 
the  Indian  mutiny  can  witness.  As  a  rule  th 
Bulgarian  is,  on  the  contrary,  rather  too  tame. 
He  is  a  very  domestic  animal,  lives  happily  with 

h  2 


XX  Preface. 

his  family,  keeps  generally  sober,  enjoys  liis  dance 
on  the  common  on  feast-days,  and  goes  with  per- 
fect willingness  and  satisfaction  to  his  daily  work 
in  the  fields  or  at  the  rose-harvest.  He  is  an 
admii'able  agricultnral  labom-er,  with  a  stolidity 
more  than  Tentonic,  withont  the  Teuton's  energy. 
Yet  these  Bulgarians  seem  to  have  a  good  deal  of 
sound  common  sense,  and  show  many  of  the 
qualities  necessary  in  a  j^eoj^le  that  is  to  govern 
itself.  It  has  hitherto  submitted  mth  ciuious 
tranquillity  to  the  Turkish  yoke,  and  the  Sultan 
has  probably  had  few  less  ill-affected  servants 
than  the  Bulgarians.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
seems  that  the  Bulgarians  entertain  a  very  de- 
cided hostility  to  Eussia,  an  enmity  second  only 
to  theii"  hatred  for  the  Greeks. 

The  third  important  element  in  the  futiu'e  of 
South-Eastern  Em-ope  is  the  Tm-ks.  Of  them  it  is 
not  necessary  to  say  much :  most  people  are 
faiidy  enlightened  as  to  the  manners  and  rule 
of  the  Tm-k,  and  the  Author  has  intentionally 
avoided  crowding  her  pages  with  Turkish  atroci- 
ties ;  they  are  all  A'ery  much  alike,  and  they  are 


Preface.  xxi 

not  pleasant  reading.  The  official  classes  meet 
'  with  scant  respect  at  her  hands ;  but  with  most 
wi"iters  she  speaks  favom*ably  of  the  Tui'kish 
peasant.  The  principal  vice  he  has  is  his  re- 
ligious fanaticism,  wliich  is  the  result  partly  of 
Mohammedanism  itself,  and  partly  of  the  form 
and  manner  in  which  it  is  inculcated  in  Turkey. 
Islam  may  be  broad  and  tolerant  enough  ;  but  not 
the  rigid  orthodox  Islam  taught  in  the  primary 
schools  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  Islam  may  be  an 
excellent  creed  by  itself ;  but  a  ruling  Moham- 
medan minority  in  a  Cluistian  coimtry  is  an  end- 
less somxc  of  trouble.  But  the  religious  question 
is  only  one  of  those  wliich  have  disturbed  the 
position  of  the  Porte.  The  system  of  administra- 
tion, as  described  in  these  pages,  is  enough  to 
overtimi  any  power,  and  an  official  class  brought 
up  under  vicious  home  influences,  educated  in 
fanatical  mosque-schools,  living  the  indolent  self- 
indulgent  life  of  Stamboul,  getting  and  keep- 
ing office  by  bribery,  administering  "justice"  to 
the  highest  bidder,  is  a  doomed  class.  When 
one  sees  how  a  Turkish  cliild  is  brought  up  he 


xxii  Preface. 

begins  to  wonder  liow  any  Turk  can  help  being 
yieions  and  di.slionest.  It  is  quite  certain  that 
there  is  no  hope  for  the  Turks  so  long  as  Tiu-kisli 
women  remain  what  they  are,  and  home-training 
is  the  initiation  of  vice.  So  far  as  can  be  judged, 
the  Tm-k  natimdly  possessed  some  of  the  true 
elements  of  greatness ;  but  it  is  rarely  they  come 
to  bear  fruit :  thej^  arc  choked  by  the  pernicious 
social  system  wliich  destroys  the  moral  force  of 
the  women  and  thereafter  the  men  of  the  empire. 
It  is  this  carefully  inculcated  deficiency  in  all 
sense  of  uprightness  and  justice,  and  this  trained 
tendency  to  everything  that  is  a  crime  against 
the  community,  that  renders  the  pasha  incapable 
of  governing.  It  is  tliis  fact  which  compels  one 
to  admit  that,  whatever  the  decisions  of  the 
Berlin  Congress,  it  is  a  clear  gain  that  the  war 
has  won  for  Em-ope,  to  be  able  to  speak  of 
Tui'kish  rule  in  the  past  tense. 

With  full  knowledge  of  the  experience  and 
research  of  the  Au.thor,  I  must  yet  say  there  are 
some  points — notably  the  Greek  Chm-ch  and  the 
Eussian  policy — in  which  I  cannot  bring  myself 


Preface.        '  xxlii 

to  agree  with  lier ;  and  I  must  also  add  that, 
owing  to  the  haste  mth  which  the  book  has'  been 
put  through  the  press,  I  have  allowed  a"  few 
misprints  to  escape  me. 

STANLEY  LANE  POOLE. 

June,  2m,  1878. 


CONTENTS    OF    VOLUME    I. 


PAET  I. 

THE    RACES    OF    TURKEY. 


CHAPTER    I. 

THE  BULGARIANS. 


PAOE 

Sketch  of  Bulgarian  History — The  Slav  Occupation — Bulgar 
Conquest— Mixture  of  the  liaces— The  Bulgarian  Kingdom 
— Contests  with  Constantinoiilc— Basil  Bulgaroktonos — Bul- 
garia under  Ottoman  Rule — Compulsory  Conversion — The 
Pomaks— Oppressive  Government — Janissary  Conscription 
—Extortion  of  Officials— Misery  of  the  People— Improve- 
mentunderAbdul-Medjid— Fidelity  of  the  Bulgarians  to  the 
Porte — The  late  Revolt  no  National  Movement — The  Geo-  . 
graphical  Limits  of  Bulgaria — Mixture  with  Greeks — Life  in 
the  House  of  a  Bulgarian  Country  Gentleman — Daily  Levees 
of  Elders  and  Peasants — Counsel  of  the  Chorbadji  and  Stupi- 
dity of  the  Clients — Instances  of  Bulgarian  Grievances — St. 
Panteleemon — A  Spiritual  Elopement — Dentist's  Fees — 
Woman's  Work  in  Bulgaria— Sobriety — Town  Life — A  Bul- 
garian Ball — A  Night  in  a  Bulgarian  Hamlet,  and  the  Com- 
fort thereof — Unity  of  the  Nation — Distrust  of  Foreigners — 
Demoralization  of  the  Bulgarians  —  The  Hope  for  the 
Future 1 


xxvi  Contents. 

CHAPTEE    II. 

THE  GREEKS  OF  TUEKEY, 

PAOR 

Importance  of  the  Greeks  at  the  present  moment — Their  Attitude 
— The  Greek  Peasant  as  Contrasted  with  the  Bulgarian — 
His  Family  —  Eloquence  —  Patriotism  —  Comforts  —  The 
Women — A  Greek  Girl — Women  of  the  towns  of  the  Upper 
Class — Of  the  Lower  Class — Wives  and  Husbands — Greek 
Parties — The  ConservatiTes  and  the  Progressives— A  Con- 
versation on  Greek  Go-a-head-ness— Physical  Features  of  the 
Modern  Greek — Character — General  Prejudice — A  Prussian 
Estimate — Greek  Vices— An  Adventure  with  Greek  Brigands 
— Adelphe — Unscrupulousness  in  Business — Causes  and  Pre- 
cedents— Jews  and  Greeks — Summary 35 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE  ALBANIANS. 

Albania  little  known  to  Travellers — Character  of  the  Country — 
Isolation  and  Neglect— Products — The  Land -holders — All 
Bey's  Revolution — Albanian  Towns — The  Albanian's  House 
his  Castle  in  a  Literal  Sense — Blood  Feuds — Villages — Un- 
approachable Position — The  Defence  of  Souli — Joannina 
— Beautiful  Site — Ali  Pasha's  Improvements — Greek  Enter- 
prise— The  Albanians — Separate  Tribes— The  Ghegs— The 
Tosks — Character  of  the  Latter — Superiority  of  the  Ghegs — 
Respect  for  Women — An  Adventure  Avith  a  Brigand  Chief — 
Gheg  Gratitude — A  Point  of  Honour  with  an  Albanian 
Servant — Religion  among  the  Albanians — Education  among 
the  Tosks — Warlike  Character  of  the  Albanians — Use  of  the 
Gun — The  Vendetta — Women  to  the  Rescue — Albanian 
Women  in  General — Female  Adornment — Emigration — 
Mutual  Assistance  Abroad — The  Albanian  Character — Reck- 
lessness— Love  of  Display — Improvidence — Pride — Hatred 
of  the  Turks,  reciprocated  to  the  full G2 


Contents.  xxvii 


CHAPTEll    IV. 

THE  TURKS. 

PAGE 

Tiu'kish  Peasants — Decrease  in  Numbers — Taxation  and  Eecruit- 
ing — Relations  with  the  Christians — Appearance — Amuse- 
ments—  House  and  Family  —  Townspeople — Guilds — Mos- 
lems and  Chi-istians — The  Turk  as  an  Artisan — Objection  to 
Innovations — Life  in  the  Town — The  Military'  Class — Govern- 
ment Ofiicials  —  Pashas  —  Grand  Vizirs  —  Receptions  —  A 
Turkish  Lady's  Life — The  Princes — The  Sultan — Slahmoud 
— His  Reforms — Abdul-Medjid — Abdul-Aziz — Character  and 
Fate— J\Iurad—Abdul-Hamid— Slavery  in  Turkey  .         .     88 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE  ARMENLVNS  AND  JE^\'S  IN  TURKEY. 

Historical  Misfortunes  of  the  Armenians — Refugees  in  Turkey, 
Russia,  Persia — "Want  of  Patriotism — Appearance  and  Cha- 
racter— Armenian  Ladies — American  Mission  Work — Schools 
— The  Jews  of  Turkey — Reputed  Origin — Classes — Conserva- 
tives and  Progressives — Jewish  Trade — Prejudice  against 
Jews — Alliance  with  Moslems — Wealth  and  Indigence — ; 
Cause  of  the  Latter — The  Jewish  Quarter — Education — 
"  L'Alliance  Israelite  " — Divorce  among  the  Jews  merely  a 
Question  of  the  Highest  Bidder ,    .  128 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE  CIRCASSIANS,  TATARS,  AND  GIPSIES  OF  TURKEY. 

Tlie  Circassians. — Their  Immigration  into  Tm'key  in  1SG4 — Their 
Camp— Chiefs  and  Slaves — Origin  of  the  charge  of  Canni- 
balism— Assistance  of  the  Government  and  the  Peasanti-y — 
Bulgarian  Views  of  the  New-comers — A  Cherkess  Girl — Sale 
of  Circassian  Women — Depredations — Cattle-lifting — Cir- 
cassian   fellow-travellers    in   a   Steamer — Appearance  and 


xxviii  Contents. 


PAaB! 

Character — Scheme  of  rhilauthropy  respectfully  offered  to 
Euseia. 

The  Tatars. — Their  Arrival  in  Ihe  Dobnidcha  with  a  Good  Cha- 
racter, which  they  have  since  maintained — Their  excellent 
qualities  as  Artisans — Religion — Women — Dirtiness — Tallow 
their  Specialty — lUvalry  of  Jewish  and  Tatar  Hawkers. 

The  Gijmes. — Legend  of  the  origin  of  the  name  Chenguin — Abhor- 
rence of  them  by  the  Turks — Eeligion  and  Superstitious 
Customs — Nomad  Life — Two  Classes — Physical  Characteris- 
tics— Reported  Witches-'  -Indiscriminate  Pilfering— A  Case 
of  Horse-stealing— G'psy  Canning  in  the  Market — Gipsy 
Avocations  —  Character  —  Gipsy-Soldiers — Town-Gipsies  — 
Agricultural  Gipsies 144 


PAET    II. 

LANDS    AND    DWELLINGS.' 


CHAPTEE    YII. 

TENURE  OF  LAND. 


Three  Classes  of  Land  in  Turkey— T 7/ /.v///"  Lands,  their  Origin 
and  Growth — Turkish  Equivalent  of  Jlortmain— Privileges 
of  Tenants  on  Vahonf  Land— Maladministration— Corrup- 
tion of  Charity  Agents  and  Government  Inspectors — General 
System  of  Embezzlement — Sultan  Mahmoud's  Attempted 
Reform — Insufficiency  of  T«A'o?// Revenues  as  administered  ; 
Supplemented  by  State— General  Decay  of  TV/Zio;// Property, 
Mosques,  Medress^s,  and  Imarets — Misapplication  of  Valwuf 
Funds  intended  for  the  Support  of  the  Public  Water-Supply 
— M'lrie  Lauds,  Government  Grants,  Jlilitary  Proprietors. 
Growth  of  a  Feudal  System — Miserable  Condition  of  the 
Rayahs— Anxiety  of  the  Porte — Destruction  of  the  Feudal 
System  by  Mahmoud  and  Abdul-lMedjid — Reduction  of  the 


Contents.  xxix 


PAQK 

Bosnian  and  Albanian  Beys — Present  Condition  of  the 
Country  Beys — Jllric  Lands  reclaimed  from  the  Waste — 
Title-Inspectors— A  Waste-Land  Abuse — Similar  Difficulties 
in  Connection  with  Ordinary  Jlirie  Tenure — Midk  or  Free- 
hold Lands— Their  Small  Extent— Difficulty  of  Establishing 
Safe  Titles — Descent  and  Transfer  of  Land — Tenure  of  Land 
by  Christians  and  by  Foreign  Subjects — Commons  and 
Forests — The  Inspectors  of  the  Forest  Department        .        .171 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

PEASANT  HOLDINGS. 

Small  proprietors  South  of  ihi;  liaUiam—FlomUhmg  State  of  the 
Country  a  few  Years  ago — A  Piosc-Harvest  at  Kezanlik — Bul- 
garian Villages — Oppressive  and  Corrupt  System  of  Taxa- 
tion and  of  Petty  Government — The  Disadvantages  counter- 
balanced by  the  Industry  and  Perseverance  of  the  Bulgarian 
Peasant — The  Lending  Fund  in  Bulgaria — Its  Short  Duration 
— Bulgarian  Peasant  often  unavoidably  in  Debt — Bulgarian 
Cottages — Food  and  Clothing — Excellent  Reports  of  German 
and  Italian  Engineers  on  the  Conduct  and  Working  Power 
of  Bulgarian  Labourers — Turkish  Peasants — Turkish  Villages 
— Comparative  Merits  of  Turkish  and  Bulgarian  Peasants — 
Land  in  JLiftdo>i,i(i—Chiei\j  Largo  Estates — ChiftUks — The 
Xonalt  or  Residence  of  the  Owner — Country  Life  of  the  Bey 
and  his  Family — His  Tenants  (l7Ta'r7/;.<) — Character  of  the 
Ycradji — His  Wretched  Condition — The  Metayer  System 
Unfairly  Worked— The  Ycradji  generally  in  Debt — Virtu- 
ally a  Serf  bound  to  the  Soil— Difficulty  of  getting  Peasants 
to  become  Yeradjis — Statute  Labour — Cultivation  and  CrojJs  195 

CHAPTER    IX. 

TURKISH  PIOUSES. 

The  Turkish  Quarter — A  A'(/«rtA'^HaremIik  and  Selamlik — 
Arrangement  of  Rooms — Furniture — The  Tundour — Turkish 
Clemency  towards  Vermm — Bordofska — An  Albanian  Konak 


XXX  Contents, 


I'AGU 

— The  Pasha  and  his  Harciu — A  Turkish  linx-hlcu — Uuins  of 
Konalis  outside  Uskup — The  Tjast  of  the  Albanian  Deri-Beys 
— A  Konah  at  Bazardjik— Tlie  Widow  of  the  Deri-Bey — 
Xio.iJm — A'oiiliix — A  Koula  near  Salonika — Christian  Quarters 
— Khans — Furniture — Turkish  Baths,  I'ublic  and  Private — 
Cafes 216 


CHAPTER    X. 

THE  SERAGLIO. 

The  Chain  of  Palaces  along  the  Bosphorus — Eskl  Serai,  the  oldest 
of  the  Seraglios  —Its  Site  and  Appearance — Beauty  of  its 
Gardens — Contrasts — Its    Destruction — IJuhiiu-Baijch&    and 
Begler-Bey — Enormous  Expendituie  of  Abdnl-iledjid  and 
Abdul -Aziz    on    Seraglios — Yalil'is    or    Villas — Bcglrr-Bi'if 
Furnished  for  Illustrious  Guests— Delicate  Attentions  of  the 
8nltan — Furniture    of    Seraglios — JIania    of    Abdul-Aziz — 
Everything  Inflammable  thrown  into  the  Bosphorus — Pleasure 
Grounds — Interior  Divisions  of  the  Seraglio — The  Maheyii 
— The   Padishah    en    nirjVuje — Imperial   Expenditure — Ser- 
vants, &c. — Food— Wages — Stables — Fine  Art— Origin  of  the 
Inmates  of  the  Seraglio — Their  Training — Adjemis — A  Train- 
ing-School for  the  Seraglio — Ranks  in  the   Seraglio — The 
Bash  Kndiii  Effendi  s.\\(}i  other  Wives — Ilanoums  or  Odalisks 
— Favourites — Equal  Chances  of  Good  Fortune — Ceremonies 
attending  the  Sultan's  Selection  of  an  Odalisk — A   Slave 
seldom  sees  the  Sultan  more  than  Once — Consequent  Loss  of 
Dignity  and   Misery  for  the  rest  of  her  Life — Precarious 
Position  of  Imperial  Favourites — Intrigues  and  Cabals  in  the 
Seraglio— Good  Fortune  of  the  Odalisk  who  bears  a  Child — 
Fashions  in  Beauty — Golden  Hair — The   Validc  Sultana — 
The  Ilasnadar  Ousta — Ignorance  and  Vice  of  the  Seraglio 
Women — The   Better   Class — The  Consumptive   Class — The 
"Wild   Serailis" — Amusements  of  the  Seraglio — Theatre — 
Ballet — Shopping — Garden  Parties  in  Abdul- Medjid's  Time 
— Imperial    Children — Foster-Brothers — Bad  Training   and 
Deficient  Education  of  Turkish  Princes  and  Princesses  .  288 


Contents.  '  xxxi 


CHAPTER    XI. 

MUNICIPALITY,  POLICE,  AND  BEIGANDAGE. 

PAGE 

JA«n((??/>«Zi!;y.— Improvement  at  Constantinople — No  Improve- 
ment in  Country  Towns — Sanitary  Negligence. — Police. 
— The  Corruption  of  the  old  Police— Formation  of  the  new- 
Corps— Its  various  Classes — Economical  Eeductions — The 
Corruption  of  the  new  Police— Voluntary  Guards  the  con- 
necting link  between  Police  and  Brigandage. — Brigandage. 
— Ancient  and  Modern  Brigands— Great  Diminution  of 
Numbers — Constant  Outrages  however — Albanians  the  born 
Brigands — Systematic  Attacks — Uselessness  of  the  Police 
— My  Brigand  Guides — Usual  Manner  of  Attack — Danger 
to  Xheradjiji — Brigands  at  Vodena  repulsed  by  a  Choi'badji 
and  his  Wife^Impijtcnce  of  the  Authorities — Outrage  at 
Caterina — Modern  Greek  Klephts 270 


THE    PEOPLE    OF    TURKEY. 


PAET     I. 

THE    EACES    OF    TURKEY. 
CHAPTER    I. 

THE    BULGARIANS. 

Sketch  of  Bulgarian  History — Tiie  Slav  Occupation — Bulgar  Con- 
quest— Mixtm-e  of  the  Races — The  Bulgarian  Kingdom — Con- 
tests with  Constantinople — Basil  Bulgaroktonos — Bulgaria  under 
Ottoman  Rule — Compulsory  Conversion — The  Pomaks — Oppres- 
sive Government — Janissary  Conscription — Extortion  of  Officials 
— Misery  of  the  People — Improvement  under  Abdul-Medjid — 
Fidelity  of  the  Bulgarians  to  the  Porte — The  late  Revolt  no 
National  Movement — The  Geographical  Limits  of  Bulgaria — 
Mixture  with  Greeks — Life  in  the  House  of  a  Bulgarian  Country 
Gentleman — Daily  Levees  of  Elders  and  Peasants — Counsel  of 
the  Chorbadji  and  Stupidity  of  the  Clients — Instances  of  Bul- 
garian Grievances — St.  Panteleemon — A  Spiritual  Elopement 
— Dentist's  Fees — Woman's  Work  in  Bulgaria —  Sobriety — 
Town  Life — A  Bulgarian  Ball — A  Night  in  a  Bulgarian  Hamlet, 
and  the  Comfort  thereof — Unity  of  the  Nation — Distrust  of 
Foreigners — Demoralization  of  the  Bulgarians — The  Hope  for 
the  Future. 

The  Bulgarians,  who  were  completely  cruslied  by 
the  Ottoman  Conquest,  and  whose  very  existence  for 
centuries  was  almost  forgotten,  have  been  suddenly 
brought  before  the  world  by  the  late  unhappy  events 
in  their  country. 

VOL    I.  .  B 


2  The  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  i. 

Much  has  heen  -written  by  Enghsh  and  foreign 
authors  respecting  them,  but  few  of  the  writings  on 
the  subject  appear  to  agree  with  regard  to  the  origin, 
the  history,  or  the  present  social  and  moral  condition 
of  this  much-injured  but  deserving  people.  I  have  no 
pretensions  to  throw  a  fresh  light  on  the  first  two 
points.  The  few  remarks  I  shall  make  are  based 
upon  such  authors  as  are  considered  most  trustworth}', 
and  especially  on  the  recent  researches  of  Professor 
HjTtl,  reserving  to  myself  the  task  of  describing 
the  moral  and  social  condition  of  the  modern  Bul- 
garians, as  fourteen  years  spent  among  them  enables 
me  to  do. 

From  the  Bulgarian  Professor  Drinov,  who  appears 
to  have  made  the  Balkan  x^enmsula  his  especial  study, 
we  learn  that  before  the  arrival  of  the  Bulgarian 
tribes  into  European  Turkey,  the  southern  side  of 
the  Danube  had  been  invaded  by  the  Slavs,  who 
during  four  centuries  poured  into  the  countr}'  and, 
steadily  spreading,  drove  out  the  previous  inhabitants, 
who  directed  their  stej^s  towards  the  sea  coasts  and 
settled  in  the  towns  there.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century  the  Slavonic  element  had  become  so 
powerful  in  its  newly-acquired  dominions,  and  its 
depredatory  incursions  mto  the  Byzantme  Empire 
so  extensive,  that  the  Emperor  Anastasius  found 
himself  forced  to  build  a  wall  from  Selymbria  on 
the  Sea  of  Marmora  to  Derkon  on  the  Black  Sea  in 


CH.    I. 


The  Bulgar  Conquest. 


order  to  repel  their  attacks.  Procopius,  commenting 
on  this,  relates  that  while  Justinian  was  winning  use- 
less victories  over  the  Persians,  part  of  his  empire  lay 
exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the  Slavs,  and  that  not 
less  than  200,000  Byzantines  were  annually  killed  or 
carried  away  into  slavery. 

The  hostile  spirit,  however,  between  these  two  nations 
was  broken  by  short  intervals  of  peace  and  friendly 
relations,  during  wliich  the  Slav  race  supplied  some 
Emperors  and  many  distinguished  men  to  the  Byzan- 
tines.     Many    Slavs   resorted  to    Constantinople   in 
order   to   receive   the   education    and    training    their 
newly-founded   kingdom   did  not   afford  them.     The 
migration  of  the   Slavs  into   Thrace  ceased  towards 
the  middle  of  the  seventh  century,  when  they  settled 
down  to  a  more   sedentary  life,  and,  under  the  civi- 
lizing influence  of  their  Byzantine  neighbours,  betook 
themselves  to  agricultural  and  pastoral  pursuits.     Ac- 
cording to  historical  accounts  the  Slavs  did  not  long 
enjoy  their  acquisitions  in  peace,  for  about  the  year 
679  A.D.  a  horde  of  Hunnish  warriors,  calling  them- 
selves Bulgars   (a   name   derived   from   their  former 
home  on  the  Volga),  crossed  the  Danube  under  the 
leadership  of  their  Khan,  Asparuch,  and  after  some 
desperate  fighting  with  the   Slavs,  finally  settled  on 
the    land    now   known    as    Bulgaria   and  founded   a 
kingdom  which  in  its  turn  lasted  about  seven  hundred 
years. 

B   2 


The  People  of  Turkey. 


FT.   I. 


From  the  little  that  is  known  of  the  original  Bul- 
garians, we  learn  that  poh'gamy  was  practised  among 
them,  that  the  men  shaved  their  heads  and  wore  a 
kind  of  tm'ban,  and  the  women  veiled  their  faces. 
These  points  of  similarity  connect  the  primitive  Bul- 
garians with  the  Avars,  with  whom  the}'  came  into 
close  contact,  as  well  as  with  the  Tatars,  during  their 
long  sojourn  between  the  Volga  and  Tanais,  as  witness 
the  marked  Tatar  features  some  of  the  Bulgarians  bear 
to  the  present  day.  The  primitive  Bulgarians  are  said 
to  have  subsisted  chiefly  on  the  flesh  of  animals  killed 
in  the  chase  ;  and  it  is  further  related  of  them  that 
they  burnt  their  dead,  and  when  a  chieftain  died  his 
wives  and  servants  were  also  burnt  and  their  ashes 
buried  with  those  of  their  master.  Schafarili,  whose 
learned  and  trustworthy  researches  on  the  origin  of 
the  Bulgarians  can  scarcely  be  called  in  question, 
remarks  that  the  warlike  hordes  from  the  Volga 
regions,  though  not  numerous,  were  very  brave  and 
well  skilled  in  war.  They  attacked  with  great  ferocity 
the  patient  plodding  Slavs,  who  were  engaged  in  cul- 
tivating the  land  and  rearing  cattle,  quickly  obtained 
the  governing  power,  and  after  tasting  the  comforts 
of  a  settled  life,  gradually  adopted  to  a  great  extent 
the  manners,  customs,  and  even  the  language  of  the 
people  they  had  conquered.  This  amalgamation  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  slow  process,  occupying,  accord- 
ing to  historical  evidence,  full  two  hundred  and  fifty 


CH.   I. 


Mixture  of  Races. 


years.  It  is  dviring  this  period  that  the  Bulgarian 
language  must  have  gradually  been  efl'aced,  and  the 
vanquishing  race,  like  the  Normans  in  England, 
absorbed  by  the  vanquished. 

This  fresh  mixture  with  the  Slav  element  consti- 
tuted the  Bulgarians  a  separate  race  with  no  original 
title  to  belong  to  the  Slavonic  family,  beyond  that 
derived  from  the  fusion  of  blood  that  followed  the 
long  intercourse  of  centuries,  by  which  the  primitive 
Bulgarians  became  blended  with  the  former  inhabitants 
of  the  country.  It  is  evident  that  the}-  were  superior 
to  the  Slavs  in  military  science  and  power,  but 
inferior  as  regards  civilization,  and  thus  natm-ally 
yielded  to  the  influence  of  the  more  advanced  and 
better  organised  people.  B}^  this  influence  they 
created  a  distinct  nation,  gave  their  name  to  the 
country,  and  consolidated  their  power  by  laws  and 
institutions. 

The  Bulgarian  kingdom,  from  its  very  foundation 
in  679  until  its  final  overthrow  by  the  Turks  in  1396, 
presents  a  wearisome  tale  of  battles  with  short  inter- 
vals of  peace,  in  the  struggle  for  supremacy  between 
the  Emperors  of  Byzantium  and  the  rulers  of  Bulgaria. 
The  balance  of  power  alternately  inclined  from  one 
party  to  the  other ;  the  wars  were  inhuman  on  both 
sides ;  on  the  one  hand,  we  read  of  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  Byzantines  yearly  sacrificed  by  the  Slavs  ;  on 
the  other,  we  have  equally  horrible  spectacles  presented 


6  The  People  of  Turkey.  w.  i. 

to  us,  like  that  enacted  during  the  reign  of  Basil, 
sumamed  ^ovXyapoKT ova's  (The  Bulgarian-killer),  on 
account  of  the  great  number  of  Bulgarians  killed 
by  liis  order.  This  savage,  having  on  one  occasion 
captured  a  large  number  of  Bulgarians,  separated 
15,000  into  companies  of  100  each,  and  ordered 
ninetj'-nine  out  of  each  of  these  companies  to  be 
blinded,  allowmg  the  remaining  hundredth  to  retain 
his  sight  in  order  to  become  the  leader  of  his  blind 
brethren. 

In  the  midst  of  such  scenes  and  at  the  cost  of 
torrents  of  blood,  successive  kingdoms  were  consti- 
tuted in  this  unhaj)py  land  of  perpetual  warfare. 
Raised  into  momentary  eminence  by  the  force  of 
arms,  they  were  again  hurled  to  the  ground  by  the 
same  merciless  instrument.  Supreme  power  has  been 
alternately  wielded  by  the  savage,  the  Moslem,  and 
the  Christian ;  each  of  whom  to  the  present  day 
continues  the  work  of  destruction. 

The  condition  of  Bulgarians  did  not  improve  under 
the  Ottoman  rule.  Their  empire  soon  disappeared, 
leaving  to  posterity  nothing  but  a  few  ruined 
castles  and  fortresses,  and  some  annals  and  popular 
songs  illustrating  its  past  glory.  The  Turkish 
conquest  was  more  deeply  felt  by  the  Bulgarians 
than  by  their  brethren  in  adversity,  the  Byzantines 
and  the  neighbouring  Slav  nations.  These,  owing 
to  the  more  favom-able  geograpliical  position  of  their 


CH.   I. 


Under  the   Ttwks. 


countries  and  other  advantages,  were  able  to  save 
some  privileges  out  of  the  general  wreck,  and  to 
retain  a  shadow  of  their  national  rights.  The  By- 
zantines were  protected  by  a  certain  amount  of 
influence  left  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  while  the 
Slav  nations  were  enabled  to  make  certain  con- 
ditions with  their  conqueror  before  their  complete 
sm^ender,  and  were  successful  in  enlisting  the  sym- 
pathies and  protection  of  friendly  powers  in  their 
behalf,  and  in  obtaining  through  their  instrumentality 
at  intervals  reforms  never  vouchsafed  to  the  Bul- 
garians. This  nation,  isolated,  ignored,  and  shut  out 
from  the  civihzed  world,  crouched  under  the  despotic 
rule  of  the  Ottomans,  and  submitted  to  a  life  of 
perpetual  toil  and  hardship,  uncheered  by  any  of  the 
pleasures  of  life,  unsupported  by  the  least  gleam  of 
hope  for  a  better  futm'e. 

This  sad  condition  has  lasted  for  centuries  ;  and  by 
force  of  misery  the  people  became  grouped  into  two 
classes  :  the  poor,  who  were  constant  to  their  faith  and 
national  feeling,  and  the  wealthy  and  prosperous,  who 
adopted  Islam  in  order  to  escape  persecution  and  save 
their  property.  To  this  latter  class  may  be  added  the 
Pomaks,  a  predatory  tribe  inhabiting  a  mountainous 
district  between  the  provinces  of  Philippopolis  and 
Serres.  They  live  apart,  and  pass  for  Mussulmans 
because  they  have  some  mosques ;  but  they  have 
no   knowledge     of    the     Koran   nor   follow    its  laws 


8  The  People  of  Turkey.  n-.  i, 

very  closely.  Most  of  them  to  this  day  bear  Christian 
names  and  speak  the  Slav  language.  The  men  are  a 
fine  race,  but  utterly  ignorant  and  barbarous. 

Upon  the  poor  and  therefore  Christian  class  fell  all 
the  weight  of  the  Ottoman  yoke,  which  made  itself  felt 
in  their  moral  and  material  condition,  and  reached  even 
to  the  dress,  Avhich  was  enforced  as  a  mark  of  servihty. 
They  were  forbidden  to  build  churches,  and  beyond 
the  ordinary  annual  poll-tax  imposed  by  Moslems  on 
infidel  subjects,  they  had  to  submit  to  the  many  illegal 
extortions  of  rajjacious  governors  and  cruel  land- 
lords ;  besides  the  terrible  blood-tax  collected  every 
five  years  to  recruit  the  ranks  of  the  Janissaries 
from  the  finest  children  of  the  province.  Nor  were 
the  Bulgarian  maidens  spared  :  if  a  girl  struck  the 
fancy  of  a  Mohammedan  neighbour  or  a  government 
ofiicial,  he  always  found  means  to  possess  himself  of 
her  person  without  using  much  ceremon}'  or  fearing 
much  commotion. 

The  depressing  and  demoralizing  effect  of  such  a 
system  upon  the  Bulgarians  may  be  imagined ;  it 
was  sufficient  to  brutahze  a  peoj)le  far  more  advanced 
than  they  were  at  the  time  of  the  conquest.  It  cowed 
them,  destroyed  theii*  brave  and  ventm'ous  spirit, 
taught  them  to  cringe,  and  weakened  theii'  ideas 
of  right  and  wrong.  It  is  not  strange  that  a  people 
thus  demoralized  should,  under  the  pressure  of  recent 
troubles,    be    said   in   some  instances  to  have    acted 


en.  I.  Attempted  Reforms.  9 

treacherously  both  towards  their  late  rulers  and  pre- 
sent protectors ;  but  the  vices  of  rapacity,  treachery, 
cruelty,  and  dishonest}',  could  not  have  been  tlie 
natural  characteristics  of  this  unhappy  people  until 
misery  taught  them  the  lesson. 

The  laws  promulgated  in  the  reign  of  Sultan  Abdul- 
Medjid  with  respect  to  the  amelioration  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  rayalis  were  gradually  introduced  into 
Bulgaria,  and  their  beneficial  influence  tended  greatly 
to  remove  some  of  the  most  crying  wrongs  that  had  so 
long  oppressed  the  people.  These  reforms  apparently 
satisfied  the  Bulgarians — always  easity  contented  and 
peacefully  disposed.  They  were  thankful  for  the  slight 
protection  thus  thrown  over  their  life  and  propert3^ 
They  welcomed  the  reforms  with  gratitude  as  the 
signs  of  better  days,  and,  stimulated  by  written  laws, 
as  well  as  b}'  the  better  system  of  government  that 
had  succeeded  the  old  one  and  had  dej^rived  their 
Mohammedan  neighbours  of  some  of  their  power  of 
molesting  and  injuring  them,  they  redoubled  their 
activity  and  endeavoured  by  industry  to  improve  their 
condition.  Such  changes  can  be  only  gradual  among 
an  oppressed  people  in  the  absence  of  good  government 
and  easy  communication  with  the  outer  Avorld.  The 
Bulgarians,  inwardl}',  perhaps,  still  dissatisfied,  seemed 
outwardly  content  and  attached  to  the  Porte  in  the 
midst  of  the  revolutionary  movements  that  alternately 
convulsed  the    Servian,  Greek,  and  Albanian  popula- 


lo  TJic  People  of  Turkey.  vw  i. 

tions.  A  veiy  small  section  alone  yielded  to  the  in- 
fluence of  the  foreign  agents  or  comitats,  who  Avere 
using  every  means  to  create  a  general  rising  in  Bul- 
garia, or  was  at  any  time  in  the  Bulgarian  troubles 
enticed  to  raise  its  voice  against  the  Ottoman  Govern- 
ment and  throw  off  its  allegiance.  The  late  movement 
is  said  to  have  received  encouragement  from  the  Bul- 
garian clergy  acting  under  Russian  influence,  and 
from  the  young  schoolmasters,  whose  more  advanced 
ideas  naturally  led  them  to  instil  notions  of  inde- 
I)endence  among  the  people.  But  these  views  were 
by  no  means  entertained  by  the  more  thoughtful  and 
important  members  of  the  community,  and  no 
organised  disaffection  existed  in  Bulgaria  at  the  time 
the  so-called  revolt  began.  The  action  of  a  few  hot- 
headed patriots,  followed  by  some  discontented  pea- 
sants, started  the  revolt  which,  if  it  had  been 
judiciously  dealt  with,  might  have  been  suppressed 
without  one  drop  of  blood.  The  Bulgarians  w^ould 
probably  have  continued  plodding  on  as  faithful 
subjects  of  the  Porte,  instead  of  being  made — as  will 
apparently  be  the  case — a  portion  of  the  Slav  group. 
Whether  this  fresh  arrangement  will  succeed  remams 
to  be  seen ;  but  according  to  m}'  experience  of  Bul- 
garian character,  there  is  very  little  sympathy  between 
it  and  the  Slav.  The  Bulgarians  have  ever  kept 
aloof  from  their  Slavonic  neighbours,  and  will  continue 
a  separate  people  even  when  possessed  of  independence. 


CH.  I.  Ethnolooical  Limits.  1 1 


Tlie  limits  of  Bulgaria,  which  must  be  drawn  from 
an  ethnological  standpoint,  are  not  very  easily  de- 
termined. The  right  of  conquest  and  long  possession 
no  doubt  entitles  the  Bulgarians  to  call  their  own  the 
country  extending  from  the  Danube  to  the  Balkans. 
South  of  that  range  and  of  Mount  Scardos,  however, 
i.e.,  in  the  northern  part  of  Thrace  and  Macedonia, 
their  settlement  was  never  permanent,  and  their 
capital,  originally  established  in  Lychnidos  (the  modern 
Ochrida),  had  to  be  removed  north  of  the  Balkans  to 
Tirnova.  The  colonies  they  established  were  never 
very  important,  since  they  were  scattered  in  the  open 
country  as  better  adapted  to  the  agricultural  and 
pastoral  pm'suits  of  the  nation.  These  settlements, 
forming  into  large  and  small  villages,  took  Bulgarian 
names,  but  the  names  of  the  towns  remained  Greek. 

The  Bulgarians  south  of  the  Balkans  are  a  mixed 
race,  neither  purely  Greek  nor  purely  Bulgarian ; 
but  their  manners  and  customs  and  physical  features 
identify  them  more  closely  with  the  Greeks  than  with 
the  Bulgarians  north  of  the  Balkans.  There  the 
Finnish  type  is  clearly  marked  by  the  projecting  cheek 
bones,  the  short  upturned  nose,  the  small  eyes,  and 
thickly-set  but  rather  small  build  of  the  people. 

In  Thrace  and  Macedonia,  where  Hellenic  blood  and 
features  predominate,  and  Hellenic  influence  is  more 
strongly  felt,  the  people  call  themselves  Thracians 
and  Macedonians,  rather  than  Bulgarians  ;  the  Greek 


1 2  The  People  of  Ttirkey.  vw  r. 


language,  in  schools,  churches,  and  in  correspondence, 
is  used  by  the  majority  in  preference  to  the  Bulgarian, 
and  even  in  the  late  church  question  in  many  places 
the  people  showed  themselves  luke-warm  about  the 
separation,  and  the  bullc  remained  faithful  to  the 
Church  of  Constantinople. 

The  saudjak  of  Philippopolis,  esteemed  almost 
entirely  Bulgarian  b}'  some  writers,  is  claimed  for 
the  Greeks  by  others  upon  the  argument  that  Stani-, 
macho,  with  its  fifteen  villages,  is  Greek  with  regard 
to  language  and  predilection,  and  Didymotichon,  with 
its  forty-five  villages,  is  a  mixture  of  Greeks  and 
Bulgarians.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  in  this 
sandjak,  m  consequence  of  its  proximity  to  Bulgaria 
proper,  and  to  its  developed  and  prosperous  condition, 
the  Bulgarian  element  has  taken  the  lead. 

The  revival  of  the  church  question  and  the  educa- 
tional movement  have  stayed  and  almost  nulhfied 
Greek  influence,  which  is  limited  to  certain  localities- 
like  Stanimacho  and  other  places,  where  the  people 
hold  as  staunchly  to  their  Greek  nationality  as  the 
Bulgarians  of  other  localities  do  to  their  own.  "While 
dispute  waxed  hot  in  the  town  of  Philippopolis 
between  the  parties  of  Greeks  and  Bulgarians,  each  in 
defence  of  its  rights,  no  spirit  of  the  kind  was  ever 
evinced  in  Adrianople,  where  the  population  is  prin- 
cipally Greek  and  Turkish,  with  a  small  number 
of  Armenians   and   Bulgarians.     In   Macedonia    the 


CH.  I,  Greeks  atid  Btdgarimis.  13 


sandjak  of  Salonika,  comprising  Cassandra,  Verria, 
and  Serres,  numbering  in  all  about  250,000  souls, 
is,  with  few  excej^tions,  Greek,  or  so  far  Hellenised 
as  to  be  so  to  all  intents  and  purposes.  The  in- 
habitants of  Vodena  and  Janitza,  and  the  majority  in 
Do'iran  and  Stromnitza,  and  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  population  of  Avrat  Hissar,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Vardar,  claim  Greek  nationality.  The  Greeks  in 
this  part  of  the  country  have  worked  with  the  same 
tenacity  of  purpose  and  consequent  success  in  Hel- 
lenising  the  people,  as  the  Bulgarians  of  the  kaza 
of  Philippopolis  in  promoting  the  feeling  of  Bulgarian 
nationahty  there.  This  mission  of  the  Greeks  here 
has  not  been  a  very  difficult  one,  as  the  national  feel- 
ing of  the  bulk  of  the  population  is  naturally  Greek. 

Notwithstanding  the  marked  tendency  of  the  people 
towards  Hellenism,  the  language  in  Vodena  and  other 
places  is  Bulgarian ;  but  the  features  of  the  people, 
together  with  their  ideas,  manners,  and  customs,  are 
essentially  Greek ;  even  the  dress  of  the  Bulgarian- 
speaking  peasant  is  marked  by  the  absence  of  the 
typical  'potoiir  and  the  gougla  or  cap  worn  in 
Bulgaria. 

Most  of  the  authors  who  have  written  on  the  popu- 
lations of  these  regions  have,  either  through  Pan- 
slavistic  views  or  misled  by  the  prevalence  of  the 
Bulgarian  language  in  the  rural  districts,  put  down  the 
whole  of  the  population  as  Bulgarian,  a  mistake  easily 


14  The  People  of  Turkey.  rx.  i. 

corrected  hy  a  summary  of  the  number  of  Greeks  and 
Bulgarians  conjointly  occupying  those  districts,  sepa- 
rating the  purely  Greek  from  the  purely  Bulgarian 
element,  and  taking  into  consideration  at  the  same 
time  the  number  of  mixed  Greeks  and  Bulgarians. 

If  the  wide  geographical  limits  projected  by  Russia 
for  Bulgp.ria  be  carried  out,  there  will  be  a  recurrence 
of  all  the  horrors  of  the  recent  war  in  a  strife  be- 
tween the  Greeks  and  Bulgarians,  in  consequence  of 
the  encroachment  of  the  future  Bulgaria  upon  terri- 
tory justly  laid  claim  to  by  the  Greeks  as  ethnologi- 
cally  their  own  and  as  a  heritage  from  past  ages.  The 
question  would  be  greatly  simplified  and  the  danger  of 
future  contests  between  the  two  peoples  much  lessened 
if  not  entirely  removed,  by  the  Bulgarian  autonomy 
being  limited  to  the  countr}^  north  of  the  Balkans. 

The  Greek  Government  might  not  be  equal  at  first 
to  the  admmistration  of  their  newly-acquired  kingdom, 
but  if  united  in  close  alliance  with  some  friendl}-  power 
and  placed  under  its  tutelage,  an  honest  and  stable 
empire  might  be  established  with  every  probabihtj^  of 
soon  rismg  into  a  flom-ishing  condition  in  the  hands  of 
a  people  whose  intelligence,  activity,  and  enterprising 
spirit  give  them  an  incontestable  superiority  over  the 
other  races  of  Turkey. 

The  Bulgarians  south  of  the  Balkans  being,  as 
before  said,  of  a  mixed  race  engrafted  upon  the  Hel- 
lenic stock,  would  not  be  found  to  offer  any  serious 


CH.  I.  Life  in  a  Coimtry  House.  15 


opposition.  They  are  closely  incorporated  with  the 
Greek  element  in  some  districts  ;  while  in  others, 
where  Bulgarian  feeling  predominates,  the  people 
would  willingly  migrate  to  Bulgaria  proper,  as  the 
Hellenised  Bulgarians  under  such  an  arrangement 
would  draw  nearer  to  Greece ;  whilst  in  parts  of 
Macedonia,  where  Hellenism  has  the  ascendancy,  very 
little  difficulty  would  be  met  with  from  the  Bulgarian 
settlements. 

My  recollections  of  Bulgarian  social  life  are  to  a 
great  extent  derived  from  a  three  months'  stay  I  made 
under  the  hospitable  roof  of  a  Bulgarian  gentleman, 
or  Chorhadji,  as  he  was  called  by  his  own  people. 
He  was  the  most  wealthy  and  influential  person  in  the 

town  of  T ,  where  his  position  as  member  of  the 

Medjeiss  constituted  him  the  chief  guardian  and  advo- 
cate of  the  Bulgarian  peoi)le  of  the  district.  I  mention 
this  in  order  to  show  the  reader  that  in  his  house  the 
opportunity  of  making  important  observations  and  of 
witnessmg  national  characteristics  were  not  wanting. 
These  observations  embraced  the  social  features  I  was 
allowed  to  study  in  the  midst  of  the  home  and  family 
life  both  of  the  educated  and  thinlcing  Bulgarians  and 
of  the  peasants  who  daily  flocked  to  the  house  of  my 
friend  from  the  towns  and  villages  to  submit  to  him 
their  wrongs  and  grievances,  and,  as  their  national 
representative,  to  ask  his  advice  and  assistance  before 
liroceeding  to  the  local  courts. 


1 6  The  People  of  Tiirkcy.  pt.  i. 

These  levies  began  sometimes  as  early  as  six  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  and  lasted  until  eleven.  The  Kodja- 
hashi,  or  headmen,  would  come  in  a  body  to  consult 
iibout  the  affairs  of  the  community,  or  to  represent 
some  grave  case  pending  before  the  local  court  of  their 
respective  towns ;  or  groups  of  peasants  of  both  sexes, 
sometimes  representing  the  population  of  a  whole  vil- 
lage, would  arrive,  at  the  request  of  the  authorities,  to 
answer  some  demand  made  by  them,  or  plead  against 
an  act  of  gross  injury  or  injustice.  Whatever  the 
■cause  that  brought  them  daily  under  mj^  notice,  the 
picture  they  presented  was  extremely  curious  and 
interestmg,  and  the  pleasure  was  completed  by  the 
privilege  I  enjoyed  of  afterwards  obtaining  a  detailed 
account  of  the  causes  and  grievances  that  brought  them 
there.  When  the  interested  visitors  happened  to  be 
elders  of  their  little  communities  or  towns,  they  were 
shown  into  the  study  of  my  host.  After  exchanging 
salutes  and  shaking  hands,  they  were  offered  slatko 
(preserves)  and  coffee,  and  business  was  at  once 
entered  into.  At  such  moments  the  Bulgarian  does 
not  display  the  heat  and  excitement  that  characterises 
the  Greek,  nor  fall  into  the  uproarious  argument  of 
the  Armenians  and  Jews,  nor  yet  display  the  finessing 
wit  of  the  Tm'k  ;  but  steering  a  middle  course  between 
these  different  modes  of  action,  he  stands  his  ground 
.and  perseveres  in  his  argument,  until  he  has  either 
made  his  case  clear  or  is  persuaded  to  take  another 


c!i.  I.  Levdes  of  Peasants.  1 7 


view  of  it.  The  subjects  that  most  animated  the  Bul- 
garians in  these  assemblies  were  their  national  affairs 
and  their  dissensions  with  the  Greeks  :  the  secondary 
ones  were  the  wrongs  and  grievances  they  suffered 
from  a  bad  administration;  and  although  they  justly 
lamented  these,  and  at  times  bitterly  complained  of 
the  neglect  or  incapacity  of  the  Porte  to  right  them  in 
an  effective  manner  and  put  a  stop  to  acts  of  injustice 
committed  by  their  Mohammedan  neighbours  and  the 
local  courts,  I  at  no  time  noticed  any  tendency  to  dis- 
loyalty or  revolutionary  notions,  or  any  disposition  to 
court  Russian  protection,  from  which,  indeed,  the  most 
enlightened  and  important  portion  of  the  nation  at  that 
period  made  decided  efforts  to  keep  aloof. 

"When  it  was  the  peasants  who  gathered  at  the 
Chorbadji's  house,  their  band  was  led  by  its  Kodja- 
Bashi,  who,  acting  as  spokesman,  first  entered  the  big 
gate,  followed  by  a  long  train  of  his  brethren.  Ranged 
in  a  line  near  the  porch,  they  awaited  the  commg 
of  the  master  to  explain  to  him  the  cause  of  their  visit. 
Their  distinguished-looking  patron,  pipe  in  hand, 
shortly  made  his  appearance  at  the  door,  when  caps 
were  immediately  doffed,  and  the  right  hands  were  laid 
on  the  breast  and  hidden  by  the  shaggy  heads  bending 
over  them  in  a  salaam,  answered  by  a  kindly  "  Dobro 
deni"  (good  morning),  followed  by  the  demand  *'  Slito 
sakaty?"  (what  do  you  want?)  The  peasants,  with 
an  embarrassed  air,  looked  at  each  other,  while  the 

VOL.    I.  0 


I S  The  People  of  Turkey.  r  r.  i. 

Kodja-Bashi  j^i'oceeded  to  explain  matters.  Should 
his  eloquence  fall  short  of  the  task,  one  or  two  others 
would  step  out  of  the  ranks  and  become  spokesmen.  It 
was  almost  jiainful  to  see  these  simple  people  endea- 
vouring to  give  a  clear  and  comprehensive  account  of 
their  case,  and  trying  to  understand  the  advice  and 
directions  of  the  Chorhadji.  A  half-frightened,  sur- 
prised look,  importing  fear  or  doubt,  a  shrug  of  the 
shoulders,  accompanied  by  the  words  "  Ne  znam — Ne 
mozhem"  (I  do  not  know,  I  cannot  do),  was  generally 
the  fii'st  expression  in  answer  to  the  eloquence  of  my 
friend,  who  in  his  repeated  efforts  to  explain  matters 
frequently  lost  all  patience,  and  would  end  by  exclaim- 
ing "  Ne  bidd}'  magari  !  "  (Don't  be  donkeys  !) — a 
remark  which  had  no  effect  upon  the  band  of  rustics 
fm'ther  than  to  send  them  off,  full  of  gratitude,  to  do 
as  he  had  counselled. 

Perhaps  the  reader  ma}^  be  curious  to  know  the 
details  of  some  of  the  cases  daily  brought  under  my 
notice.  I  will  mention  a  few  not  connected  with 
Turkish  oppression  and  maladministration ;  for  by 
this  time  the  Englisli  public  has  been  pretty  well 
enlightened  on  that  subject.  Mj^  list  will  include 
some  rather  more  original  incidents  which  took  place 
in  the  community :  disputes  between  all  non-Mussul- 
mans are  generally  settled  by  the  temj^oral  or  spiritual 
chiefs,  and  seldom  brought  before  the  Courts  of 
Justice. 


cii.  I.  Saint  Paiitclcemon.  19 

While  Greeks  and  Bulgarians  in  the  heat  of  con- 
troversy were   snatching   churches   and    monasteries 
from  each   other,   the   priests   and  monks  who  were 
attached  to  these  sacred  foundations  found  themselves 
uni)leasantly  jostled  between  the  two  hostile  elements. 
To  be  a  Greek  priest  or  monk  and  be  forced  to  ac- 
knowledge the  supremacy  of  an   anathematised  and 
illegal  church  was  a  profanation  not  to  be  endured ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  be  a  Bulgarian  and  be 
forced  to  pray  day  by  day  for  a  detested  spiritual  head 
rejected  by  his  nation  was  an  insupportable  anomaly. 
In  the  midst  of  the  difficulty  and  confusion  at  first 
caused   by   this   state  of  affairs,  some    of  the    good 
fathers   and    monks    had   to   remove   their   quarters 
and   betake  themselves  to  a   wandering  life,  visiting 
their   respective    communities    and   encouraging    the 
people   by  their  exhortations   to   hold  fast   to   their 
church  and  oppose  with  all  their  might  the  claims  and 
usurping  tendencies  of  the  others.     Among  these  a 
Bulgarian    monk,    more     venturous    and     evidently 
endowed  with  a  greater  amount  of  imaginative  elo- 
quence than  the  rest,  and  rejoicing  in   the   title    of 
Spheti  Panteleemon,  regarded  himself  as  the  prophet 
of  the    Bulgarian   people.     This  Saint  Panteleemon 
was  a  man  of  middle  age  and  middle  height,  with  a 
jovial  face,   a  cunning  look,   and    an   intelligent   but 
restless  eye,  by  no  means  indicative  of  an  ascetic  view 
of  life. 

c  2 


20  The  People  of  Turkey.  n-.  i. 

Contrary  to  the  sa3'iiig  tlmt  no  man  is  a  prophet 
in  his  own  country,  Spheti  Panteleemon  was  ac- 
knowledged as  such  by  a  considerable  class  of  his 
people,  consisting  entirely  of  the  gentle  sex,  and  his 
success  among  them  was  as  great  as  ritualism  appears 
to  be  in  England. 

The  preaching  of  this  prophet,  intended  solely  for 
the  Bulgarian  women,  became  so  j)ronounced  in  its 
tenets,  so  eloquent  in  its  delivery,  and  was  rendered 
so  impressive  by  the  different  means  he  employed  to 
instil  his  precepts  into  the  hearts  and  minds  of  his 
hearers,  that  their  number  soon  increased  into  a  vast 
congi'egation,  which  flocked  from  all  parts  of  the 
country  to  hear  the  words  of  their  favourite  saint. 
On  such  occasions,  this  false  prophet,  who  had 
managed  to  usurp  possession  of  a  small  monastery, 
would  stand  forth  amid  thousands  of  women,  who  at 
his  aj)proach  would  cross  themselves  and  fall  down 
almost  to  worship  him.  Spheti  Panteleemon,  in 
acknowledgment  of  this  mark  of  devotion,  would  raise 
his  voice  and  rehearse  his  doctrines  to  the  devotees. 
These  doctrines  included  strange  princijjles,  asserted 
by  their  author  to  be  the  best  and  surest  way  to 
Paradise ;  but  they  scarcely  conduced  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  husbands.  AVomen,  according  to  this 
man,  were  to  be  free  and  independent,  and  their 
princij)al  affections  were  to  be  bestowed  upon  their 
spiritual   guide  ;    their  earnestness  was  to  be  proved 


cii.  I.  Saint  Pantelcemoii,  1 1 

by  depositing  their  earthly  wealth  (consisting  chiefly  of 
their  silver  ornaments)  at  his  feet.  The  practical 
Bulgarian  husbands,  however,  were  by  no  means  ad- 
mirers of  this  new  spiritual  director,  whose  sole  object 
appeared  to  be  to  rob  them  of  the  affections  of  their 
wives  along  with  their  wealth,  and  they  soon  raised 
their  voices  against  his  proceedings.  After  holding 
counsel  on  the  subject,  they  decided  to  give  notice  of 
his  '  doings  to  the  local  authorities,  and  by  their  in- 
fluence to  have  him  sent  out  of  the  country.  The 
prophet  was  arrested  one  fine  morning,  while  ad- 
dressing a  congregation  of  500  women,  by  a  body  of 
police,  and  brought  to  the  prison  of  the  town  of 
S ,  whilst  all  the  women  devoutly  followed,  weep- 
ing, beating  their  breasts,  and  clamouring  for  the 
release  of  their  saint.  The  husbands,  on  the  other 
hand,  pleaded  their  grievances  against  this  disorga- 
iiiser  of  society,  and  proved  his  dishonesty  by  dis- 
j>laying  to  the  authorities  a  quantity  of  silver  trinkets 
of  all  descriptions  taken  from  his  dwelling,  to  the 
great  indignation  of  his  devotees.  The  imagination 
of  some  of  these  ignorant  and  superstitious  peasant 
women  had  been  so  worked  upon  that  they  solemnly 
declared  to  me  that  the  feet  of  their  prophet  never 
touched  the  ground,  but  remained  always  a  distance 
of  two  feet  above  it,  and  that  his  sole  sustenance  was 
grass.  While  his  fate  was  still  undecided,  amidst  the 
wailiugs  of  the  women,  the  protests  of  the  husbands. 


2  2  The  People  of   Turkey.  i-r.  i. 

and  the  embarrassmeiit  of  the  authorities,  the  fellow 
got  out  of  the  difiiculty  by  declaring  himself  a 
**  Uniate "  and  a  member  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
This  avowal  could  not  fail  to  excite  the  interest  of 
the  agents  of  that  body  :  they  claimed  the  stray  sheep 
as  redeemed,  took  him  under  theii*  immediate  protec- 
tion, but  (it  is  to  be  hoped)  deprived  him  of  his 
pretended  attribute  of  sanctity  and  the  power  of 
making  himself  any  longer  a  central  object  of  attrac- 
tion to  the  heau  sexe. 

Another  incident  was  of  a  nature  less  sensational 
but  equally  repulsive  to  the  feelings  and  notions  of 
the  strict  portion  of  the  Bulgarian  nation,  and  had 
also  a  monk  for  its  hero.  It  consisted  of  an  eloj)e- 
nient,  and  if  there  is  one  crime  that  shocks  and 
horrifies  orthodox  people  more  than  another,  it  is 
that  of  a  monk  who,  talcing  the  vows  of  celibac}', 
perjures  himself  by  adopting  the  respectable  life  of  a 
married  man.  Such  events  are  of  xevy  rare  occmTence, 
and  when  they  take  place  cause  a  great  commotion. 

This  monk,  at  the  time  of  the  disputed  church 
rights,  lost  his  solitary  retreat,  and  was  once  more 
thrown  in  contact  with  the  world  he  had  forsworn. 
Sent  adrift,  he  set  out  in  search  of  an  unknown 
destiny,  Avithout  hope  or  friends,  uncertain  where  his 
next  meal  was  to  come  from.  After  a  long  day's 
march,  he  lay  down  to  rest  under  a  tree  in  a  culti- 
vated field,  and,  overcome  by  fatigue,  fell  asleep.     He 


CH.  I.  A  Spwitual  Elopement.  23 

was  about  twenty-five  years  of  age,  tall,  with  regular 
features,  a  startlingly  j^ale  complexion,  and  coal  black 
eyes,  hair,  and  beard ;  his  whole  appearance,  indeed, 
rather  handsome  than  otherwise.  Such,  at  least, 
was  the  description  given  of  him  by  the  rustic 
beauty  who  surprised  liim  while  driving  her  father's 
cattle  home. 

A  Bulgarian  monk  in  those  stirring  times  was 
always  an  object  of  interest,  even  to  a  less  imaginative 
person  than  a  young  maiden.  She,  therefore,  con- 
sidered it  her  duty  to  watch  over  his  slumbers,  and 
refresh  him  with  bread  and  salt  on  awaking.  Quietly 
seating  herself  by  his  side,  she  awaited  the  arousal 
of  the  unconscious  sleejier.  When  he  awoke,  his  eyes 
met  those  of  the  girl,  and  in  that  exchange  of  looks 
a  new  light  dawned  upon  these  two  beings,  who, 
though  they  had  never  met  before,  were  now  to  become 
dearer  to  each  other  than  life  itself.  The  monk 
forgot  his  vows,  and  i^oured  forth  his  tale  of  love 
to  a  willing  listener,  who  immediately  vowed  to 
follow  his  fortunes  and  become  his  wife,  or  end  her 
days  in  a  convent.  This  illustrates  the  definition 
of  love  once  given  to  me  by  a  Bulgarian  gentleman  : 
"  Chez  nous  I'amour  n'a  point  de  preHminaires  ;  on 
va  droit  au  fait."  The  adventurous  couple  forth- 
with eloped,  and  wandered  about  the  country,  until 
the  moidc  was  discovered,  in  spite  of  his  disguise,  by 
the  scandalised  Bulgarians,   by   whom   he  was  once 


24  The  People  of  Titrkey.  rr.  i. 

more  sent  to  a  monasteiy,  imprisoned  in  a  dungeon, 
condemned  to  live  upon  dry  bread  and  to  undergo 
dail}'  corporal  chastisement  for  his  sins.  But  the 
adventurous  maiden,  determined  to  effect  his  release, 
contrived  to  make  friends  with  the  Kir  Agassi,  or 
head  of  the  mounted  police  in  the  district  where  the 
monasterj'was  situated,  and  through  his  instrumentalit}^ 
the  monk  was  again  set  at  liberty.  The  subject  was 
discussed  in  all  its  bearings  at  the  house  of  my  friends, 
until  the  couple  wisely  adopted  Protestantism,  and 
after  being  married  by  a  minister  of  that  church 
settled  down  to  a  peaceful  life  of  domestic  bliss. 

A  third  incident  illustrates  the  Bulgarian  apprecia- 
tion of  surgical  art.  The  name  of  surgeon  was  un- 
known in  the   country  villages,  and  that  of  dentist, 

even  in  a  large  town  like  S ,  until  an  adventurous 

spiiit  bielonging  to  the  latter  profession,  in  the  course 
of  a  speculative  tour,  established  himself  there.  The 
inhabitants,  on  passing  his  house,  used  to  stop  and 
gaze  in  wonder  at  the  sets  of  teeth  displayed  under 
glass  cases.  Conjecture  ran  wild  as  to  how  these 
were  made  and  could  be  used.  Some  imagined  them 
to  be  abstracted  from  the  jaws  of  dead  persons,  salted, 
and  prepared  in  some  mysterious  way  for  refitting  in 
the  mouths  of  the  living. 

The  fame  of  the  dentist!s  art  began  to  be  noised 
abroad  throughout  the  district,  and  many  became 
desirous,  if  not  of  procurmg  new  teeth,    at  least  of 


CH.  I.  Dentists   Fees.  25 

having  some  troublesome  old  stmnps  extracted. 
Among  these  was  a  well-to-do  Bulgarian  peasant, 
who  presented  himself  m  the  surgery  for  this  purpose. 
The  dentist  relieved  him  of  his  tooth  with  great 
facilit}^  to  the  man's  exceeding  astonishment.  On 
leavmg,  he  took  out  his  long  knitted  money-bag,  care- 
fully counted  out  five  piastres  (lOcL),  and  handed  them 
to  the  dentist,  who  returned  them,  saying  that  his  fee 
would  be  half  a  lira.  "  What !  "  exclaimed  the  indig- 
nant  Bulgarian  ;  "  do  you  mean  to  say  that  3'ou  will 
charge  me  so  much,  when  last  week  I  anderwent  the 
same  operation  at  the  hands  of  my  barber,  and  after 
a  struggle  of  two  hours  over  an  obstinate  tooth,  during 
which  I  had  several  times  to  lie  flat  on  my  back  and 
he  and  I  were  both  bathed  in  perspiration  until  it 
finally  yielded,  I  paid  him  five  piastres,  with  which 
he  was  quite  contented ;  and  you,  who  were  only  a 
few  minutes  over  it,  demand  ten  times  that  sum  !  It 
is  simply  monstrous,  and  I  shall  forthwith  lodge  a 
complaint  against  you  !  " 

As  good  as  his  word,  in  a  fever  of  excitement  he 
arrived  at  the  Chorbadji's  house  to  denounce  the  ex- 
tortionate Frank.  When  quietly  asked  if  it  were  not 
worth  while  to  pay  a  larger  sum  and  get  rid  of  his 
tooth  without  loss  of  time  and  trovible,  instead  of 
spending  two  hours  of  suffering  and  violent  exertion 
for  which  he  was  charged  only  five  piastres,  he  ad- 
mitted that  such  was  the  case,  and  that  the  Frank  was 


26  The  People  of  Turkey.  it.  i. 


a  far  cleverer  man  than  the  barber  coukl  ever  hoxae 
to  be. 

Social  life  among  the  Bulgarians  differs  little  from 
that  of  the  Greeks,  save  in  the  greater  ascendancy 
the  Bulgarian  wives  of  the  working  classes  have 
over  their  husbands.  This  advantage  is  probably 
derived  from  the  masculine  manner  in  which  they 
share  in  the  hardy  toil,  working  by  the  side  of  their 
husbands,  and  by  their  personal  exertions  gaining 
almost  as  much  as  the  men  do.  Tlie  care  of  clothing 
the  family  also  devolves  entirely  upon  them,  besides 
which  they  have  to  attend  to  their  domestic  duties, 
which  are  always  performed  with  care,  cleanliness, 
and  activity.  Simple  as  these  tasks  may  be,  they  require 
time,  which  the  housewife  always  manages  to  find. 
The  well  beaten  earthen  floor  is  always  neatly  swept, 
the  rugs  and  bedding  carefully  brushed  and  folded 
up,  and  the  copper  cooking  utensils  well  scoured  and 
ranged  in  their  places.  The  cookery  is  simple  but 
very  palatable,  especiall}'  the  pastry,  which  is  ex- 
cellent ;  whilst  the  treacle  and  other  provisions  stored 
away  for  the  winter  are  wholesome  and  good. 

Some  uninformed  authors  have,  I  believe,  stated 
that  not  only  are  the  Bulgarian  men  seldom  to  be 
seen  in  a  state  of  sobriety,  but  that  the  women  also 
indulge  to  a  great  extent  in  the  vice  of  drunkenness. 
So  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge,  this  statement  is 
utterly  groundless ;  for  no  woman  in  the  east,  what- 


CH.  I.  A  Bulgarian  Ball.  27 

ever  lier  nationality,  disgraces  herself  b}^  drinking  to 
excess  in  the  shops  where  spirituous  drinks  are  sold, 
or  is  ever  seen  in  the  streets  in  a  state  of  intoxication. 
The  man  certainly  likes  his  glass,  and  on  occasions 
freely  indulges  in  it ;  but  excesses  are  committed  only 
on  feast-days,  when  the  whole  village  is  given  up  to 
joviahty  and  merriment. 

The  townspeople  seldom  indulge  in  these  festi- 
vities; but  tied  down  to  a  sedentary  life,  cheered 
by  no  \dew  of  the  open  country,  nor  by  fresh  air 
and  the  rural  pursuits  congenial  to  their  nature, 
they  lead  a  monotonous  existence,  divided  between 
theii'  homes  and  their  calling.  The  women  on 
their  side  fare  no  better,  and  with  the  exception  of 
paying  and  receiving  calls  on  feast-days,  or  tiddng  a 
promenade,  keep  much  within  doors,  occupying  them- 
selves wdth  needlework  and  taking  an  active  part  in 
their  domestic  affairs.  This  quiet  uniform  life  is  oc- 
casionally brightened  by  an  evening  party,  or  even  a 
ball,  if  the  deficiency  in  the  arrangement  of  the  rooms, 
the  refreshments,  and  especially  the  sans  gene  observed 
with  regard  to  dress,  permit  of  the  name.  One  of  these 
festive  scenes  was  illuminated  by  large  home-made 
tallow  candles,  supported  by  candelabra  of  Viennese 
manufacture,  further  supplemented  by  another  in- 
novation in  the  shape  of  a  pair  of  elegant  snuffers, 
which  fortunately  obviated  the  usual  performance  with 
the  fingers,  by  which  the  ball-rooms  are  usually  per- 


28  The  People  of  Turkey.  vx.  i. 


fumed  with  the  odour  of  bm-iit  mutton  chops.  Setting 
aside  minor  details,  my  attention  was  much  attracted 
b}^  the  queer  versatiHty  of  the  band,  which  suddenly 
changed  from  the  national  horci  to  an  old-fashioned 
polka  which  had  just  been  introduced  as  a  great 
novelt}',  but  was  indulged  in  only  by  married  couples, 
or  timid  brothers  and  sisters,  who  held  each  other  at 
so  respectful  a  distance  that  another  couple  might 
easily  have  passed  between  them.  But  the  greatest 
charm  of  the  gathering  was  the  coiq)  (Vail  that  em- 
braced dress,  deportment,  and  decorations.  The  dress 
was  as  varied  in  shape  and  material  as  the  forms  of 
the  wearers.  Double  and  triple  fur  coats,  according 
to  age  and  taste,  safely  sheltered  the  majority  of  the 
gentlemen  from  cold  and  draughts  ;  well-fitting  frock 
coats  distmguished  the  few  comme  11  faiit  officials  ; 
while  dress  coats  of  Parisian  cut  distinguished  the 
quiet  and  apparently  gentlemanlilce  youths  brought  up 
in  Europe,  and  contrasted  with  the  less  elegant  toilettes 
of  their  untravelled  brethren  dressed  d  la  Bulcjare. 

The  variet}"-  in  the  dress  of  the  ladies  was  equall}'' 
diverting.  Some  wore  their  fur  jackets  over  rich  silk 
dresses,  others,  more  fashionable,  dispensed  with  the 
weight  of  this  unnecessary  article ;  while  the  heads  of 
all  of  them  sparkled  with  jewelry.  Crinoline,  often 
heard  of  under  the  name  of  "  Malakoff,"  but  unseen 
in  the  town  before  1855,  was  supposed  to  be  in- 
troduced into  the  room  by  a  German  Jewish  lady,  an 


en  I.  Prospei'ity  of  the  Peasant.  29 

old  resident  in  the  town,  and  was  so  proudly  displayed 
b}'  her  in  all  its  proportions,  tliat  it  attracted  the 
attention  of  a  homely  old  Bulgarian  gosjJOi/er,  who,  in 
a  simple  manner,  quietly  turned  up  the  hem  of  her 
dress  and  displayed  to  a  small  section  of  the  astonished 
assembly  an  ingenious  substitute  for  the  crinoline 
made  of  The  Times  newspaper  ! 

The  chapter  on  Peasant-holdings  treats  at  some 
length  of  the  Bulgarian  peasant,  of  his  capacity 
for  w^ork,  and  the  amount  of  ease  and  prosperity 
he  is  able  to  attain  in  spite  of  the  many  draw- 
backs that  surround  him.  His  ]3rosperity  is  due  to 
two  sources — the  modest}^  of  his  wants,  and  the  activity 
of  his  whole  family.  The  fruits  of  such  a  system  are 
naturally  good  when  the  soil,  climate,  and  other 
natural  advantages  favour  it. 

But  some  parts  of  Bulgaria  are  far  from  being  the 
Utopia  some  newsjDaper  correspondents  have  repre- 
sented it,  with  vines  hanging  over  every  cottage-door, 
and  millv  and  honey  flow-ing  in  the  land.  Nothing  but 
long  residence  and  personal  experience  can  enable  one 
to  arrive  at  a  true  estimate  of  such  matters. 

Though  in  some  parts  I  found  the  scenery  delight- 
ful, the  prosperity  of  the  inhabitants  astonishing,  and 
Moslems  and  Christians  rivalling  each  other  in  hos- 
pitable kindness  to  the  traveller,  some  sjiots  were  any- 
thing but  romantic  or  prosperous,  and  far  from  happy- 
looking.    Some  villages,  in  j)articular,  I  noticed  in  the 


o 


o  The  People  of   Turkey.  rx,  i. 


midst  of  a  dreary  plain,  siicli  as  the  traveller  may  see 
on  the  road  from  Rodosto  to  Adrianople,  where  the  soil 
looks  dry  and  barren,  and  the  pastures   grow  yellow 
and  parched  before  their  time,  and  where  flying  bands 
of  Circassian    thieves   and    cut-throats   hover   about 
like  birds  of  prey.     I  was  once  travelhng  through  the 
countr}^  riding  the   whole  of  one  day  on   such  bad 
roads,  that  the  mud  often  reached  up  to  my  horse's 
knees,  and  the  carriage  containing  my  maid  and  the 
provisions  often  came  to  a  dead  stop,  while  the  rain 
poured  incessantl}'.     The  journey  appeared  intermin- 
able, and  as  darkness  crept  on  and  several  miles  of 
road  still  separated   us   from   our  projected  halting- 
place,  I  made   up   my  mind   to  stop  at  an  isolated 
village  for  the  night.     So  traversing  fresh  pools  of 
mud  we  entered  the  hamlet,   and  were   met   by  the 
Kodja-Bashi,  a   poorly-clad,  miserable-looldng   indi- 
vidual, who   led   our  party  into   his   farmyard.     On 
alighting  from  my  horse  I  was  ushered  into  a  dark, 
bare,  dismal  hovel,  without  windows,  and  lighted  only 
by  a  hole  in  the  roof,  through  which  escaped  some  of 
the  smoke  from  a  few  dung-cakes  smouldering  in  a 
corner.     One  or  two  water-jars  stood  near  the  door, 
and  an  earthen  pot,  serving  for  all  culinary  purposes, 
was  placed  by  the  fire,  in  front  of  which  was  spread  a 
tattered  mat  occupied  by  a  few  three-legged  stools.     A 
bundle  of  uninviting  rags  and  cushions,  the  family 
bedding,  was  stowed  in  a  corner,  and  in  another  were 


cii.  I.  A   Biilzarian  Hamlet.  x  i 


•yLL/   CLUi-       J.  J.  LI  1 1 1, 1.1.1^.  J. 


seen  a  few  pots  and  pans,  the  whole  "table-service"  of 
the  occupants. 

This  hovel  was  attached  to  a  similar  one  opening 
into  it,  where  I  heard  some  bustle  going  on.  I  was 
told  that  a  member  of  the  family  who  occupied  it  and 
was  seriously  ill  was  being  removed  to  a  neighbour's 
house.  Much  annoyed  at  having  caused  so  much  trouble 
and  disturbance  to  the  unfortunate  sufferer,  I  asked 
my  host  why  he  had  not  placed  me  in  another  cottage. 
"Well,  gosjyoyer,^'  answered  he,  with  an  apologetic 
gesture,  "poor  and  wretched  as  my  home  is,  it  is  the 
best  the  village  possesses.  The  rest  are  not  fit  to 
kennel  your  dogs  in.  As  for  my  daughter,  I  could  not 
but  remove  her,  as  her  cries  during  the  night  would 
prevent  your  sleeping."  I  inquired  her  complaint, 
and  was  told  that  she  was  in  high  fever,  and  suffered 
from  sharp  pains  all  over  her  body.  There  was  no 
doctor  to  attend  her,  nor  had  she  any  medicine  but 
the  decoctions  prepared  for  her  by  the  old  hulkas. 

I  visited  the  poor  creature  and  gave  what  heip  I 
could;  but,  being  by  no  means  reassured  as  to  the 
nature  of  her  malady,  and  unwilling  to  sleep  in  the 
vicinity  of  an  infected  room,  I  ordered  the  carriage  to 
be  placed  under  a  shed  and  proposed  to  pass  the  night 
in  it.  The  host,  however,  on  hearing  this,  told  me  that 
it  was  quite  impracticable,  as  the  village  dogs  were  so 
famished  that  they  would  be  sure  to  attack  the  carriage 
for  the  sake  of  the  leather  on  it.     "I  have  taken  the 


3-  The  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  i. 


precaution,"  he  added,  ''  of  removing  every  part  that 
is  liable  to  be  destroj-ed,  but  there  is  no  telling  what 
these  animals  will  do."  I  then  ordered  the  hamper  to 
be  brought  in  and  supper  to  be  prepared ;  but  on 
sitting  down  on  the  floor  to  partake  of  it  we  discovered 
that  our  provision  of  bread  was  exhausted,  and  leamt 
that  not  a  morsel  was  procurable  in  the  village.  Our 
host  explained  this  by  saying,  "You  see,  gos'poyer, 
our  village  is  so  poor  and  miserable  that  we  have  no 
drinkable  water,  and  our  hidkas  have  to  fetch  it  from  a 
distance  of  three  miles.  "We  have  no  fuel  either,  for 
the  village  has  no  forest,  and  we  content  ourselves 
with  what  you  see  on  the  hearth.  As  for  bread,  it  is  a 
luxury  we  seldom  enjoy  ;  millet  flour  mixed  with  water 
into  a  paste  and  baked  on  the  ashes,  is  our  substitute 
for  it ;  it  does  for  us,  but  would  not  please  you." 

In  the  meantime  the  women  and  children  had 
gathered  round  me  in  the  little  room,  all  looking  so 
poor,  fever-stricken,  and  miserable,  and  casting  such 
looks  of  eager  surprise  at  the  exliibition  of  eatables 
before  me,  that  I  felt  positively  sick  at  heart ;  all  my 
appetite  left  me,  and  distributing  my  supper  among 
the  hungiy  crowd,  I  contented  myself  with  a  cup  of 
tea,  and  endeavoured  to  forget  in  sleep  the  picture  of 
misery  I  had  witnessed.  I  was  thankful  to  get  away 
in  the  morning,  and  am  happ}'  to  say,  that  neither 
before  nor  since  have  I  witnessed  such  poverty  and 
misery  as  I  saw  in  that  village. 


cii.  I.  Distrust  of  Fo7'eig7icrs.  2>Z 


The  marked  slowness  of  perception  in  the  character 
of  the  Bulgarian  peasants,  and  their  willingness  to 
allow  others  to  think  and  act  for  them  in  great 
matters,  is  not  so  apparent  when  the  immediate 
interests  of  the  village  or  community  are  concerned. 
Before  referring  these  to  the  higher  authorities,  they 
meet  and  quietly  discuss  their  afiairs,  and  often  settle 
the  differences  among  themselves.  The  respect  the 
Bulgarian  entertains  for  the  clergy  and  for  the  en- 
lightened portion  of  his  fellow-countrymen  is  so  great 
that  he  allows  himself  to  he  entirel}'  guided  by  them, 
evincing  in  small  things  as  well  as  great  the  feeling  of 
harmony  and  union  that  binds  the  whole  people 
together.  But  the  reverse  of  this  disposition  is 
manifested  by  the  Bulgarians,  more  especially  the 
peasants,  towards  any  foreign  element,  and  parti- 
cularly towards  the  Turkish  authorities.  Obedient  and 
submissive  as  the}^  have  generally  shown  themselves 
under  the  Ottoman  rule,  they  have  inwardly  always 
dishked  and  distrusted  it,  saying  that  the  govern- 
ment with  regard  to  their  country,  its  richest  field  of 
haiwest,  has  only  one  object  in  view — that  of  getting 
as  much  out  of  it  as  possible. 

This  prevalent  idea,  not  altogether  ill-founded,  gave 
to  the  Bulgarian  character  that  rapacity  and  love  of 
gain  which,  being  developed  by  late  events,  in  the 
midst  of  general  ruin  and  loss  of  property,  tempted 
him  to  try  to  get  what  he  could  of  what  had  been  left, 

VOL.   I.  I) 


34  '^^i(^  People  of  Tw'hcy.  rx.  i. 

without  mucli  scruple  as  to  the  means.  When  unmerited 
calamities  1  efjill  a  people,  and  oppression  long  weighs 
heavily  upon  them,  the  sense  of  justice  and  humanity 
is  gradually  lost  and  replaced  by  a  spirit  of  vindictive- 
nes3  whicli  incites  to  ignoble  and  cruel  actions.  This 
ought  not  to  surprise  the  world  in  the  case  of  the 
Bulgarians,  when  their  national  life  during  the  last 
two  years  is  taken  into  consideration ;  for  what  is  it 
but  a  series  of  unspeakable  outrages  by  their  enemies, 
and  destruction  b}'^  those  who  professed  themselves 
their  friends  ? 

The  Bulgarians,  however,  as  I  have  known  them  in 
more  peaceful  times,  never  appeared  to  possess  as 
national  characteristics  the  vices  that  hasty  and 
partial  judges  arguing  from  special  instances  have 
attributed  to  them.  On  the  contrary,  they  seemed 
a  peace-loving,  hard-working  people,  possessing  many 
domestic  virtues  which,  if  properly  develojied  under  a 
good  government,  might  make  the  strength  of  an 
honest  and  promising  state. 


CHAPTEE   II. 

THE    GREEKS    OF    TURKEY. 

Importance  of  the  Greeks  at  the  present  moment — Their  Attitude 
— The  Greek  Peasant  as  Contrasted  with  the  Bulgarian — His 
Family — Eloquence  —  Patriotism  —  Comforts —  The  Women — A 
Greek  Girl — Women  of  the  towns  of  the  Upper  Class — Of  the 
Lower  Class — Wives  and  Husbands — Greek  Parties — The  Con- 
servatives and  the  Progressives — A  Conversation  on  Greek 
Go-a-head-ness — Physical  Features  of  the  Modern  Greek — Cha- 
racter— General  Prejudice — A  Prussian  Estimate — Greek  Vices — 
An  Adventure  with  Greek  Brigands — Adelphe — Unscrupulous- 
ness  in  Business — Causes  and  Precedents — Jews  and  Greeks — 
Summary. 

All  eyes  are  now  turned  upon  the  Greek  race  as 

one  of  the  most   important  factors   in  the   Eastern 

Question.      The  future  of  South-Eastern   Europe   is 

seen  to  lie  in  the  balance  between  Greek  and  Slav,  and 

people's    opinions  incline   to  one    side    or   the    other 

as  dread  of  Eussia  or  distrust  of  "  Greek  guile  "  gets 

the  upper  hand.     I  have  nothing  to  say  here  about 

the  people  of  free  Hellas  :    I  have  only  to  tell  what 

I  have  witnessed  of  the  character  and   condition  of 

the  subject  Greeks  in  Turkej'.     These,  though  they 

shared  in  the  national  effort  of  1821-9,  reaped  little 

of  the  fruits.     The  Greeks  of  Macedonia,   Thessaly, 

and  Thrace  did  not  gain  the  freedom  accorded  to  the 

people  of  "  Greece  Proper,"  though  their  condition  was 

somewhat  improved.     But  they  are  onl}--  biding  their 

D  2 


o 


6  The  People  of  Tiirkey.  n-.  i. 


time.  The}'  know  that  their  free  countrymen  are 
anxious  to  share  with  them  the  results  of  the  glorious 
struggle  of  1821.  They  know  that  centuries  of  subjec- 
tion and  oppression  have  demoralised  and  debased  the 
nation  ;  and  they  have  long  been  striving  with  their 
whole  strength  to  prepare  themselves  for  freedom. 
They  have  employed  the  time  of  transition  with  great 
moderation  and  judgment.  Those  whom  the  Porte 
has  appointed  to  high  ofl&ces  have  filled  their  posts 
with  conscientiousness,  fidelity,  and  dignity.  Taught 
worldly  wisdom  in  the  school  of  adversity,  they  have 
avoided  premature  conspiracy  and  rebellion,  and  have 
directed  all  their  energies  to  educating  the  race  for  its 
future.  "  Improve  and  wait  patientty  "  is  the  motto  of 
the  Greeks  in  Turkey. 

The  Greek  peasant  differs  greatly  from  the  Bul- 
garian. Agriculture  is  not  all  the  world  to  him  ;  his 
love  for  the  pursuit  is  decided^  moderate  unless  he 
sees  an  opening  for  enterprise  and  speculation,  as  in 
the  growth  of  some  special  kind  of  produce  which  he 
can  sell  in  the  raw  condition  or  as  manufactured  goods. 
Unlike  the  Bulgarian,  his  whole  family  is  not  chained 
to  the  soil  as  the  one  business  of  life.  ^Vhen  the  pater- 
familias can  dispense  with  the  services  of  some  of  his 
daughters,  they  leave  their  home  in  pursuit  of  occupa- 
tion, and  his  sons  in  the  same  manner  are  allowed  to 
quit  the  paternal  roof  in  search  of  some  more  lucrative 
employment  elsewhere.     It  is  thus  that  the  Greek  is 


CH.  II.  Greek  Families.  37 

to  be  found  in  every  nook  and  corner  of  Turkey,  esta- 
blished among  his  own  kindred  or  with  foreigners,  and 
following  various  professions  and  callings,  as  doctors, 
lawj'ers,  schoolmasters  ;  whilst,  descending  to  a  lower 
scale,  we  hnd  him  employed  in  every  town  and 
village  as  a  petty  tradesman,  mason,  carpenter,  shoe- 
maker, musician,  in  all  which  occupations  he  manages 
by  dint  of  energy,  perseverance,  and  address,  to  obtain 
a  modest  competence,  or  sometimes  even  to  reach 
prosperity. 

I  remember,  among  other  instances  of  the  kind,  the 
case   of   a   Greek  peasant   family  in  the   district    of 

B .    The  father  was  a  respectable  man,  who  owned 

a  small  property  in  his  native  village,  and  whose 
quiver  was  filled  with  eight  chikben.  The  eldest 
remained  to  assist  on  the  farm  ;  two  others  of 
tender  age  also  remained  under  the  mother's  care ; 
the  other  five,  including  a  girl,  left  their  home, 
and  came  to  the  town.  One  of  the  boys  and  the 
giii  took  service  with  me ;  a  second  boy  apprenticed 
himself  to  a  photographer,  another  became  a  painter 
of  church  pictures,  and  the  fourth  a  cigarette  maker. 
The  salaries  these  young  peasants  received  were  at 
first  very  meagre ;  but  all  the  same  the  four  boys 
clubbed  their  savings  together,  and  after  a  time  sent 
for  theii'  3'ounger  brother  to  live  in  town  in  order  to 
enjoy  the  benefit  of  receiving  a  good  education.  Six 
years  passed,    during  which  the   boy  and  his  prett}^ 


38  The  People  of  Iwkcy.  v-x.  i. 

and  intelligent  sister  remained  in  my  house  ;  both 
learned  to  speak  English,  the  boy  having  studied  the 
language  grammatical!}^  in  his  leisure  moments.  They 
are  now  honest,  intelHgent  servants,  perfect  m  the  per- 
formance of  their  duties,  and  devoted  to  my  famil}-. 
The  three  apprentices,  through  their  steadiness,  good 
conduct,  and  energy,  have  become  proficient  enough 
in  their  different  callings  to  set  up  for  themselves,  while 
the  boy  at  school  is  one  of  the  most  advanced  students 
of  the  Gymnasium. 

The  intellectual  position  of  the  Greeks  is  far  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  Bulgarians.  They  are  cleverer,  and 
they  and  their  children  are  more  advanced  in  educa- 
tion. They  display  a  great  interest  in  passing  events, 
as  well  as  in  politics,  a  knowledge  of  which  the}'-  obtain 
by  means  of  the  numerous  Greek  newsj^apers  they 
receive  from  Athens,  Constantinople,  and  all  the  large 
towns  of  Turkey.  These  journals  find  their  way  to 
the  remotest  hamlets,  one  or  two  being  sufficient  to 
make  the  round  of  a  village.  They  also  possess  other 
literature  in  the  shape  of  the  history  of  their  country, 
biographies  of  some  of  theii-  illustrious  ancestors,  and 
national  songs  in  the  vernacular.  All  these  make  a 
deep  impression  upon  the  entire  poj)ulation,  who,  after 
the  conclusion  of  the  labom^s  of  the  da}^  gather 
together  in  the  taverns  and  coffeehouses  to  discuss 
matters,  talking  excellent  sense  over  the  coffee-cup,  or 
waxing  hot  and  uproarious  over  their  wine  and  raki. 


CH.  II.  Gi'eek  Peasants. 


The  Greek  peasant  disj^lays  none  of  the  embarrass- 
ment and  tonguetiedness  of  the  Bulgarian.  I  have 
often  met  with  instances  of  this  :  one  especially  struck 
me  which  happened  in  the  early  part  of  last  summer  in 

the   vilayet   of    B .      Some    Bashi-bazouks    had 

entered  a  village,  and  committed  some  of  their  usual 
excesses  ;  but  the  peasants  had  found  time  to  send 
away  their  wives  and  daughters  to  a  place  of  safet}'. 
On  the  following  day  a  body  of  fifty  Greeks  came  to 
complain  to  the  authorities.  In  order  to  render  their 
claims  more  effective,  they  applied  for  protection  at  the 
different  Consulates.  I  happened  to  be  at  luncheon  at 
one  of  these  Consulates,  and  the  Consul  ordered  the 
men  to  be  shown  into  the  dining-room  to  make  theii' 
statements.  One  at  once  stepped  forward  to  give  an 
account  of  the  affair,  which  he  related  with  so  much 
eloquence  and  in  such  pure  modern  Greek  that  the 
Consul,  suspecting  him  to  be  some  lawyer  in  disguise, 
or  a  special  advocate  of  Greek  grievances,  set  him 
aside,  and  called  upon  another  to  give  his  version. 
Several  looked  questioningly  at  each  other,  but  with  no 
sign  of  embarrassment;  on  the  contrary,  the  expres- 
sion on  each  face  betokened  natural  self-confidence, 
and  meant  in  this  instance  to  say,  "  We  can  each  tell 
the  tale  equally  well,  but  I  had  better  begin  than 
you." 

Patriotism  is  highly    developed  among  the    Greek 
peasants,  who  are  fully  aware  of  the  meaning  of  the 


40  The  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  i. 


word  patris,  and  taught  to  bear  in  mind  that  half  a 
century  ago  free  Hellas  formed  part  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire ;  that  its  inhabitants,  like  themselves,  were  a 
subject  people,  and  owe  the  freedom  the}'  now  enjoy  to 
self-sacrifice  and  individual  exertion,  "  They  are  our 
elder  brothers,"  say  the}^  "who  have  stepped  into 
their  inheritance  before  us.  There  is  a  just  God  for 
us  as  well !  " 

The  wants  of  the  Greek  are  more  numerous  than 
those  of  the  Bulgarians.  Their  dress,  for  instance,  is 
not  limited  to  a  coarse  suit  of  aha  and  a  sheepskin 
gottgla,  but  is  sometimes  made  of  fine  cloth  and  other 
rich  materials,  and  includes  shoes  and  stockings.  The 
culinary  department  also  demands  more  utensils ;  be- 
sides which,  tables,  table-linen,  knives  and  forks  are 
often  seen  at  their  meals.  The  bedding  they  use  is 
more  complete,  and  does  not  consist  solely  of  rugs,  as 
with  the  Bulgarians.  Their  houses  are  better  built, 
with  some  regard  to  comfort  and  appearance,  fre- 
quently with  two  stories,  besides  possessing  chimneys 
and  windows  (when  safe  to  do  so).  The  village  schools 
are  better  organised,  and  kept  under  the  careful  super- 
vision of  the  Society  for  their  direction,  and  the 
churches  are  more  numerous.  The  women  are  less 
employed  in  field  work,  and  consequently  more  refined 
in  their  tastes,  prettier  in  appearance,  and  more  care- 
ful and  elegant  in  their  dress.  The  Greek  peasant 
gii'l  knows  the  value  of  her  personal  charms,  and  dis- 


CH.  11.  Peasant  Girls.  41 

dains  to  load  herself  with  the  tarnished  trinkets,  gaud}'- 
flowers,  and  other  wonderful  productions  in  which 
the  Bulgarian  maiden  delights.  A  skirt  of  some 
bright-coloured  silk  or  mixed  stuff  and  a  cloth  jacket 
embroidered  with  gold  form  the  principal  part  of  her 
gala  costume,  covered  with  a  fur-lined  pelisse  for  out- 
of-door  wear.  Her  well-combed  hair  is  plaited  in 
numerous  tresses,  and  surmounted  b}'^  the  small  Greek 
cap,  which  is,  decorated  with  gold  and  silver  coins 
like  those  she  wears  as  a  necklace.  She  is  not  to  be 
bought,  like  the  Bulgarian,  for  a  sum  of  money  paid 
to  her  father  as  an  equivalent  for  her  services ;  but 
according  to  her  means  is  dowered  and  given  in  mar- 
riage, lilce  the  maidens  of  classical  times.  Still  the 
peasant  girl  is  neither  lazy  nor  useless ;  she  takes  an 
active  part  in  the  duties  of  the  household,  is  early 
taught  to  knit  and  spin  the  siU^,  flax,  wool,  or  cotton 
which  the  mother  requires  for  the  different  home- 
made tissues  of  the  family.  She  leads  her  father's 
flock  to  the  pasture,  and  under  the  title  of  Vosko'poiila 
kindles  a  'flame  in  the  heart  of  the  village  youth  and 
inspires  the  rustic  muse.  On  Sundays  and  feast 
days  she  enters  heartily  into  all  the  innocent  plea- 
sures of  her  retired  and  isolated  life.  She  has  more 
pride  than  the  Bulgarian  ;  and  although  in  married 
life  she  is  submissive  and  docile,  she  possesses  a 
greater  depth  and  richness  of  love.  I  have  known  in- 
stances of  peasant  girls  exchanging  vows  with  youths 


42  The  People  of  T2irkey.  -pt.  i. 

of  their  villnge  who  are  leavmg  their  home  in  search  of 
fortune,  and  patiently  waiting  for  them  and  refusing 
all  offers  in  the  meantime.  In  most  cases  this  devo- 
tion is  requited  by  equal  constancy  on  the  part  of  the 
lover ;  but  should  she  be  deserted,  her  grief  is  so  ter- 
rible that  she  not  seldom  dies  from  the  blow. 

If  there  is  more  than  one  daughter  in  a  family,  some 
from  the  age  of  twelve  or  fom-teen  are  usually  sent  to 
town  and  placed  out  as  servants,  with  the  double 
object  of  giving  them  the  opportunity  of  seeing  more 
of  the  world  and  the  means  of  earning  something  for 
their  own  maintenance.  These  earnings  as  they  are 
acquired  are  converted  into  gold  coins  and  strung  into 
necklaces. 

AVlien  these  giids  are  honest  and  good,  and  fall  into 
proper  hands,  they  are  usually  adopted  by  the  family 
with  whom  they  take  service,  under  the  title  of 
■v|/-u)(07Tat8a.  On  reaching  the  age  of  twenty-five  or 
twenty-seven  a  trousseau  is  given  to  them  with  a 
small  dowry,  and  they  are  married  to  some  respectable 
artisan.  Those  simply  hired  as  servants  either  marry 
in  the  towns  or  do  so  on  returning  to  their  native 
village. 

The  Greek  peasant  women  are  as  a  rule  clean  and 
industrious,  fond  mothers  and  virtuous  wives.  The 
best  proof  of  theii"  morality  is  in  the  long  absences 
many  husbands  are  obliged  to  make  from  their  homes, 
which  are  attended  by  no  unfaithful  results.     In  some 


cii.  II.  Greek   Women.  43 

instances  for  a  period  of  even  twenty  years  the  wife 
becomes  the  sole  director  of  the  property,  which  she 
manages  with  care  and  wisdom,  and  the  only  guardian 
of  the  children  left  in  her  charge. 

The  peasants  who  still  chng  to  the  soil  plod  away 
at  their  daily  toil  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  the 
Bulgarians,  but  show  a  greater  aptitude  for  rearing 
the  silkworm  and  growing  ohves  and  grapes.  The 
Greek  peasants  are  not  models  of  perfection ;  but  as 
a  body,  they  are  better  than  any  other  race  in  Turkey, 
and  under  a  good  government  they  are  certam  to  im- 
prove and  develope  much  faster  than  either  the  Bul- 
garians or  the  Turks. 

The  Greek  women  of  the  towns,  according  to  their 
station  and  the  amount  of  refinement  and  modern 
ideas  they  have  been  imbued  with,  display  in  their 
manners  and  mode  of  livmg  the  virtues  and  faults 
inherent  in  the  Greek  character.  I  must  in  justice 
state  that  the  former  exceed  the  latter ;  theii"  virtues 
consist  principally  in  their  quality  of  good  honest 
wives,  and  in  the  simple  lives  they  are  usually  con- 
tent to  lead  in  their  homes.  The  enlightenment 
and  conversational  talents  of  some  of  the  better  class 
do  not  fall  far  short  of  those  of  European  ladies. 
Those  less  endowed  by  education  and  nature,  have  a 
quiet  modest  bearing,  and  evince  a  great  desire  to  im- 
prove. The  most  striking  faults  in  the  Greek  woman's 
character  are  fondness  of  dress  and  display,  vanity,  and 


44  ^^^^i<^  People  of  Turkey.  n-.  i. 


jealousy  of  the  better  circumstances  of  her  neighbours. 
The  si)irit  of  envious  rivahy  in  dress  and  outward 
appearance  is  often  carried  to  such  a  pass  that  the 
real  comforts  of  home-life  are  sacrificed,  and  many 
live  poorl}^  and  dress  meanly  on  ordinary  occasions  in 
order  to  display  a  well-furnished  drawing-room  and 
expensive   holiday   costumes   to   the   public.      When 

livmg  in  the  town  of  N ,  I  was  taken  into  the 

confidence  of  the  Archbishop's  niece,  who  was  my 
neighbour.  She  confessed  to  me  that  on  promenade 
days  she  regularly  stationed  her  servant  at  the  end 
of  the  street  in  order  to  inspect  the  toilette  of  her 
rival,  the  wife  of  the  richest  diorhadji,  so  that  she 
might  be  able  to  eclipse  her. 

Greek  ladies  are  fond  and  devoted  mothers,  but 
they  are  not  systematic  in  rearing  their  children. 
This  has,  however,  been  remedied  in  many  cases  by 
children  of  both  sexes  being  placed  from  a  very  early 
age  in  the  care  of  governesses,  or  at  school,  where  the 
more  regular  training  they  receive  cannot  fail  to  have 
beneficial  results. 

The  Hfe  of  women  of  the  working  classes  is  still  more 
homely  and  retired,  as  it  is  considered  an  impropriety 
to  be  seen  much  out  of  doors,  esj)ecially  in  the  case  of 
young  gu'ls,  whom  prejudice  keeps  very  secluded,  even 
to  the  length  of  seldom  allowing  them  to  go  to  church. 
When  abroad,  however,  their  fondness  for  display  is 
equal  to  that  of  their  richer  sisters,  whose  toilettes. 


CH.  II.  Womejis  Employments.  45 

however  novel  or  complicated,  in  cities  like  Constanti- 
nople and  Smyrna,  are  sure  to  be  copied  by  the  fisher- 
men's or  washerwomen's  daughters.  In  provincial  towns 
like  Rodosto  and  Adrianople,  the  love  of  dress  finds  its 
satisfaction  in  bright  colours  and  wreaths  of  artificial 
flowers,  especiall}'  the  much  coveted  carnation,  when 
out  of  season,  which  is  worn  by  some  as  a  love-trophy : 
for  it  must  have  been  given  by  some  lover  on  the  feast- 
day.  Greek  girls  are  very  clever  at  needlework  and 
embroidery ;  but  their  life  is  nevertheless  monotonous, 
and  they  have  little  variety  of  occupation  and  amuse- 
ment. This  is  owing  in  part  to  the  exclusion  of 
women  of  all  races  in  Turkey  from  occupations  in 
shops,  and  to  the  absence  of  manufactories,  which, 
with  the  exception  of  some  silk  factories,  do  not  exist 
in  the  country.  Those  in  the  silk-growing  districts, 
however,  give  employment  to  a  number  of  Greek 
girls,  who  show  great  aptitude  for  this  branch  of  in- 
dustry and  often  become  directresses  of  establish- 
ments in  which  Armenian  and  other  women  are 
emploj'ed. 

The  affection  of  a  Greek  wife  for  her  husband  is 
joined  to  a  jealous  care  of  his  interest ;  she  will  strive 
to  hide  his  faults  and  weaknesses,  and  the  disinterested 
devotion  with  which  she  will  cling  to  him  in  prosj^erity 
and  adversity  is  astonishing.     A  woman  belonging  to 

the  town  of  S ,  on  hearing  that  her  husband  had 

been  arrested  on  a  charge  of  complicity  with  brigands, 


46  The  People  of  Tm'key.  vt.  i. 

left  her  home  and  five  chikh'en  to  the  care  of  a  blind 
grandmother,  and  set  out  on  foot  on  a  three  days' 
journey  to  the  town  where  he  was  to  be  tried.  He  was 
condemned  to  seven  years'  imprisonment,  and  sent  to 

the    prison    at    A ,    whither    she   followed    him. 

Young  and  pretty,  entirely  friendless,  and  without 
means  of  subsistence,  she  lingered  about  the  Greek 
quarter  until  her  sad  tale  gained  her  an  asylum  in  a 
compassionate  family.  She  toiled  hard  to  gain  a  small 
pittance,  which  she  divided  between  herself  and  her 
unhappy  partner  shut  up  in  the  common  prison.  The 
dreadful  news  was  brought  to  her  that  three  of  her 
children  were  dead,  that  her  house  was  falling  to  pieces, 
and  that  her  aged  and  afflicted  mother  was  unable  to 
take  care  of  the  two  surviving  little  ones.  Unmoved 
by  these  calamities  she  refused  to  quit  the  town  of 

A ■    until,   through    the   instrumentahty   of   some 

influential  persons  whose  sympathies  she  had  enlisted, 
her  husband's  period  of  punishment  was  shortened. 

Greek  society  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  the 
conservative  party  and  the  progressive.  The  former, 
in  the  provincial  towns,  are  jealous  of  their  rights  and 
privileges  as  elders  of  the  community  and  representa- 
tives of  the  nation  in  the  Medjliss.  In  many  in- 
stances these  side  with  the  authorities  in  acts  of 
injustice,  sometimes  from  timidity  and  sometimes  from 
interested  motives.  This  small  retrograde  class  is 
also  strongly  opposed  to  the  progress  of  education  and 


CU.   II. 


"  Embrosr  47 


often  hinders  it  by  stint  of  money  and  general  hostility 
to  all  changes. 

The  second  class  consists  of  the  educated  members 
of  the  community,  who  earn  their  fortunes  in  much 
the  same  way  as  the  rest  of  the  civilized  world,  and 
spend  it  liberally  in  comforts  and  luxuries,  and  for  the 
benefit  of  the  nation — an  object  to  which  every  Greek 
tries  to  contribute  in  some  degree.  The  motto  of  this 
party  is  Embros  !  (Forward !)  They  are  stopped  by 
no  difficulties  and  overcome  by  no  drawbacks,  either  in 
their  personal  interests  or  those  of  the  nation.  Their 
success  in  enterprise  should  no  longer  (as  formerly)  be 
attributed  to  disloyalty,  dishonesty,  and  intrigue — in 
these  respects  there  is  no  reason  for  believing  them 
worse  than  their  neighbour's  —  but  to  the  wonderful 
energy  and  ability  they  show  in  all  their  undertakings. 
I  heard  a  conversation  some  time  ago  between  two 
medical  celebrities  of  Constantinople  with  reference  to 
the  Greek  spmt  of  enterprise  and  ambition.  One 
praised  their  enterprise  as  a  promising  quality,  and  to 
use  his  own  expression,  said,  "  There  is  an  immense 
amount  of  *  go  '  in  the  Greek." 

**  Go!"  repeated  the  other,  waxing  hot,  "  Too  much 
so,  I  believe  :  there  is  no  telling  where  a  Greek's 
enterprising  spirit  may  not  lead  him,  or  where  his  am- 
bition will  stop  !  Listen  to  my  experience  on  the 
subject  and  judge  for  yourself.  Some  years  ago  I  was 
asked  by  a  good  old  Greek  I  knew  very  well  to  take 


48  The  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  i, 

his  son,  a  youth  of  twenty,  into  my  service.  Accord- 
ing to  the  father's  recommendation,  he  was  a  good 
Greek  scholar  and  knew  a  little  Latin.  I  asked  the 
father  in  what  capacity  I  was  to  engage  him.  '  Any 
you  hke,'  was  the  reply  :  '  let  him  be  your  servant — 
your  slave.'  *  Very  well ;  but  he  will  have  to  clean 
my  boots  and  look  after  my  clothes  ! '  '  7;oA.i>  Koka ' 
was  the  response,  and  I  engaged  his  son. 

"  On  the  following  day  my  new  valet  entered  upon  his 
duties.  He  was  a  good-looking,  smart,  and  intelligent 
fellow,  and  at  first  exact  and  able  in  the  performance 
of  his  functions  ;  but  gradually  he  became  lax,  absent 
in  manner,  and  negligent ;  although  steady  and  quiet 
in  his  conduct.  One  day  the  mj'stery  of  this  change 
was  revealed  on  my  returning  home  unexpectedly,  and 
finding  the  fellow,  instead  of  cleanmg  my  boots,  w^iich 
he  held  in  his  hand,  deeply  plunged  m  one  of  the 
medical  works  on  my  table.  In  my  anger  at  seeing 
my  papers  and  books  meddled  with,  I  brought  my 
boots  mto  contact  Avith  his  head,  telling  him  that 
if  ever  I  caught  him  again  at  that  sort  of  thing,  he 
would  be  punished  more  severely.  *  Forgive  me,'  said 
he,  in  a  very  penitent  manner,  and  walked  demurely 
out  of  the  room.  He  showed,  however,  no  signs  of 
improvement,  and  subsequently  I  discovered  him  com- 
mitting no  less  a  piece  of  impertinence  than  copying 
some  prescriptions  that  lay  on  my  desk.  This  was  too 
much ;  so,  as  a  punishment,  I  made  him  take  one  of 


CH.  II.  A    Valet-Doctor.  49 

the  potions ;  but  on  the  next  day  he  cahnly  tokl  me 
that  the  iatrico  had  done  him  good,  having  cahned  his 
blood  and  cleared  his  head !  Of  course,  I  dismissed 
the  fellow  and  replaced  him  by  an  Armenian,  who 
answered  my  purpose  better,  though  he  did  dive  now 
and  then  rather  extensively  into  the  larder.  For  some 
years  I  lost  sight  of  my  former  valet  and  had  forgotten 
his  very  existence  till  it  was  brought  to  my  recollec- 
tion in  the  following  unexpected  manner.  I  one  day 
received  a  pressing  message  to  go  at  once  to  the  house 
•of  D —  Pasha  to  see  a  sick  child  and  hold  a  consulta- 
tion with  hjs  new  lickhn  hasJd  (doctor)  on  its  case. 
At  the  appointed  hoin*  I  went,  and  on  entering  the 
konak  was  ushered  into  the  selamlik  to  await  the 
arrival  of  the  other  doctor  who  was  to  lead  me  into  the 
harem.  In  a  few  minutes  my  supposed  colleague 
walked  in,  hat  and  gold-headed  stick  in  one  hand, 
while  the  other  was  extended  to  me,  with  the  words 
'  KaXriixipa,  tarpe '  (good  morning,  doctor).  The  face 
and  voice  transfixed  me  for  a  moment,  but  the  next 
presented  to  me  the  fact  that  my  former  valet  stood 
before  me,  claiming  the  right  of  holding  a  consultation 
■vsdth  me.  AVhereat  I  was  on  the  point  of  giving  vent 
to  my  indignation,  by  seizing  him  by  the  collar  and 
ejecting  him  from  the  apartment,  when  he  quietly  said, 
'  Excuse  me,  Larpe,  but  I  stand  before  you  in  right  of 
the  diploma  I  have  obtained  from  Galata  Serai.  Allow 
me    to    submit    it   to  your   learned    and    honourable 

VOL.  I.  E 


50  The  People  of  Turkey.  rx.  i, 

nspectlon.'  There  was  no  denying  the  fact ;  the 
fellow's  di2")lorna  was  in  perfect  order.  My  anger  coolings 
I  consented  to  consult  with  him,  when  he  again  incensed 
me  by  venturing  to  take  a  view  of  the  case  opposed  tO' 
mine.  His  opposition,  however,  was  only  momentary  ;^ 
for,  taking  the  upper  hand,  I  dictated  my  directions  to 
liim,  and  he,  yielding  with  a  good  grace  to  my  expe- 
rience, carried  out  my  orders  with  gi'eat  precision.  I 
had  subsequently  many  opportunities  of  meeting  him, 
and  must  in  justice  say  that  he  turned  out  one  of  the 
best  j)upils  of  Galata  Serai,  and  the  most  grateful 
man  I  have  ever  known.  He  is  at  present  attached  to- 
the  Ked  Cross  Society,  to  which  he  gives  the  greatest 
satisfaction." 

In  feature  and  build  the  modern  Greek  still  pos- 
sesses the  characteristic  traits  of  his  ancestors.  Scien- 
tific researches  and  anatomical  observations  made 
upon  the  skulls  of  ancient  Greeks  are  said  to  i^rove 
that  if  art  had  glorified  to  a  slight  extent  the  splendid 
models  of  statues,  it  could  not  have  stra3'ed  very  far 
from  the  originals.  Such  pure  and  perfect  types  are 
constantly  met  with  at  the  present  day  in  the  modern 
Greeks,  who,  as  a  rule,  possess  fine  open  foreheads, 
straight  noses,  and  fine  eyes  full  of  fire  and  intelli- 
gence, furnished  with  black  lashes  and  well-defined 
e.yebrows  ;  the  mouths  are  small  or  of  medium  size, 
with  a  short  upper  lip ;  the  chin  rather  prominent,  but 
roimded.     The  entire  physiognomy  diff"ers  so  essen- 


CH.  II.  Greek  Progress.  5 1 

tially  from  the  other  native  tj'pes,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  mistake  it.  In  stature  the  Greek  is  rather  tall  than 
otherwise,  well-made  and  well-proportioned  ;  the  hands 
and  feet  are  small  in  both  sexes.  The  walk  is  grace- 
ful, but  has  a  kind  of  SAvagger  and  ease  in  it,  which, 
although  it  looks  natural  in  the  national  costume, 
seems  affected  in  the  European  dress. 

The  distinct  Greek  type,  so  noticeable  in  certain 
localities,  has  in  others  suffered  from  the  admixture 
with  foreign  elements ;  but  we  find  \\.  again  in  all  its 
perfection  in  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  where  the  Greeks  were  at  one  epoch  so  crushed 
and  denationalised  as  to  have  lost  the  use  of  their 
mother-tongue.  Some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  the 
Greek  race  may  be  found  in  Smyrna,  Gemlek,  and 
Philadar,  as  well  as  in  more  inland  places,  such  as 
Mahalitch,  Demirdesh,  and  Kellessen. 

The  influence  and  effects  of  the  last  and  most  im- 
portant change  must  be  carefully  followed  and  the 
transformation  already  wrought  upon  the  nation  taken 
into  consideration  before  a  fair  and  impartial  estimate 
of  the  character  of  the  present  Greeks  can  be  arrived 
at.  The  nation  in  its  present  scattered  condition 
presents  great  variety  and  dissemblance  ;  but  even 
these  points,  in  my  opinion,  constitute  its  force 
and  guarantee  its  future  prosperit}^  No  person  well 
acquainted  with  modern  Greece  can  contest  the  vast 
improvement   in   the   national    character   during    the 

E   2 


52  TJic  People  of  Turkey.  i>t.  i. 

last  half  centuiy,  the  moral  development  already 
gained,  and  the  prosperous  condition  the  little  king- 
dom has  now  entered  upon.  The  educated  and  en- 
lightened rmjah  follows  closeh''  in  the  footsteps  of  his 
liberated  kinsmen,  and  bids  fair  some  day  to  catch 
them  up.  Until  recent  times  the  real  advance  in  the 
Greek  character  seems  to  have  escaped  the  notice  of 
European  critics,  and  in  obedience  to  ancient  pre- 
judice it  is  still  the  fashion  to  cry  down  the  future 
queen  of  South-East  Europe.  A  charitable  Prussian 
diplomatist,  writing  with  more  zeal  than  know- 
ledge, gave  the  following  flattering  portrait  of  the 
Greeks  of  Constantinople  at  the  end  of  the  last 
century : — "  Le  quartier  est  la  demeure  de  ce  qu'on 
appelle  la  noblesse  grecque,  qui  vivent  tons  aux  de- 
penses  des  princes  de  Moldavie  et  de  Valachie.  C'est 
une  university  de  toutes  les  sceleratesses,  et  il  n'existe 
pas  encore  de  langue  assez  riche  pour  donner  des 
noms  a  toutes  celles  qui  s'y  commettent.  Le  fils  y 
apprend  de  bonne  heure  a  assassiner  adroitement 
son  pere  pour  quelque  argent  qu'il  ne  saurait  etre 
poursuivi.  Les  intrigues,  les  cabales,  I'hypocrisie, 
la  trahison,  la  perfidie,  surtout  I'art  d'extorquer  de 
I'argent  de  toutes  mains,  y  sont  enseignes  methodique- 
ment !  " 

An  English  author  of  more  recent  date,  but  neither 
more  enlightened  nor  animated  with  a  greater  sense 
of  justice  or  impartiality,  denies  their  right  to  a  national 


cii.  II.  Prejudice  against  the  Greeks.  53 

history  or  tlieir  possession  of  an  ancestry,  furnishing 
them  instead  with  one  out  of  his  fertile  imagination. 
According  to  him  several  millions  of  Greeks  are  name- 
less homeless  upstarts,  who  have  invariahly  made 
their  fortunes  hy  following  the  trade  of  hakals  or 
chandlers,  and,  with  the  enormous  and  illegal  profits 
of  their  business,  send  their  sons  to  Athens  to  he 
educated  and  receive  a  European  varnish,  then  to 
return  to  Turkey  full  of  pretension  and  had  morals, 
to  sow  discord  and  create  mischief  among  their  less 
enlightened  brethren.  Such  absurd  statements  carr}-- 
their  own  refutation;  but  the}'  mislead  people  who  are 
akeady  prejudiced  and  ready  to  believe  anything  bad 
of  the  Greeks.  The  general  currency  such  erroneous 
assertions  receive,  even  in  England,  the  country  of 
Byron  and  the  seamen  of  Navarino,  struck  me  in  a 
remark  lately  made  by  an  intelligent  English  boy  of 
twelve,  who,  happening  to  hear  the  Greeks  mentioned 
at  the  luncheon  table,  asked  his  mother  if  all  the 
Greeks  were  not  cut-throats  ? 

These  fallacies  are  gradually  being  cleared  away. 
As  a  nation  the  Greeks  possess  undeniable  virtues 
and  talents,  which,  properly  encouraged  and  guided, 
have  in  them  the  making  of  a  strong  progressive 
people — such  as  one  day  the  Greeks  will  assuredly  be. 
Tlieir  faults  are  as  distinct  and  prominent  as  their 
virtues.  In  the  careful  and  impartial  examination  a 
long  residence  has  enabled  me  to  make  of  the  character 


54  1^f^<^  People  of  Turkey.  it.  i. 

of  this  people,  I  discovered  a  good  deal  of  vanit}', 
bravado,  and  overweening  conceit.  They  are  vain  of 
their  abilit}-,  and  still  more  vain  of  the  merits 
and  capacit}'  of  free  Hellas,  of  which  the^'  are  so  ena- 
moured as  to  consider  this  little  kingdom,  in  its  wa}', 
on  a  level  with  the  Great  Powers.  The  spirit  of 
bravado  is  often  shown  in  animated  disputes  and  con- 
troversies, for  which  they  have  a  great  partiality. 
They  are  subtle,  extremely  sensitive,  fond  of  gain, 
but  never  miserly.  Their  enthusiastic  nature,  given 
free  scope,  will  lead  them  into  the  doing  of  golden 
deeds  ;  and,  in  the  same  way,  bad  influence  will  make 
of  some  the  most  finished  rogues  in  creation.  No 
Greek  thief  of  Constantinople  will  be  beaten  in  daring 
or  in  the  art  of  carrying  out  a  cou])  de  main.  No 
assassin  will  more  recklessl}'  plunge  his  knife  into  the 
heart  of  an  enem}-,  no  seducer  be  more  enticing,  no 
brigand  more  dashing  and  bold.  And  yet  in  the  worst 
of  these  there  is  some  redeeming  quality  ;  a  noble 
action  polluted  by  many  bad  ones  ;  crimes  often  fol- 
lowed by  remorse  and  a  return  to  a  steady  and  honest 
life.  Gratitude  for  a  good  service  is  always  met  with 
among  the  Greeks,  as  among  the  Albanians.  An  ex- 
ample of  this  may  be  seen  in  an  adventure  that  more 
than  twenty  years  ago  happened  to  an  Englishman  in 
the  Government  employ,  who  was  travelHng  in  a  pro- 
vince infested  by  brigands.  Armed  and  accompanied  by 
a  good  escort,  Mr.  F.  had  set  out  during  the  night  for 


en.  II.  Brigands.  55 

the  town  of  L ,  and  following  the  impulse  of  an  ad- 

ventm-ous  spirit,  he  strayed  awa,y  from  his  companions 
in  a  dense  forest.  The  light  of  a  full  moon  made  the 
path  quite  distinct,  and  he  had  proceeded  some  distance, 
when  his  hridle  was  suddenly  seized  hy  some  fierce- 
looking  fellows,  who  appeared  by  his  side  as  if  by 
magic.  Mr.  F.'s  surprise  was  as  great  as  the  action 
was  menacing ;  but  he  instantly  seized  his  revolver, 
and  thouglit  on  the  prudence  of  using  it,  when  the 
"  capitan,"  a  regular  leromenos*  sprang  forward,  and  a 
struggle  ensued  for  its  possession,  in  which  the  weapon 
was  broken.  The  moment  was  critical,  the  danger 
imminent,  for  self-defence  was  out  of  the  question  with 
.a  broken  revolver.  In  this  emergency,  with  the  pre- 
sence of  mind  which  characterises  him,  Mr.  F.  thought 
of  another  means  of  protection,  and  removing  tlic 
white  cover  of  his  official  cap,  pointed  out  the  crown 
on  it,  and  declared  himself  a  servant  of  the  British 
Government.  This  had  the  desired  effect,  fV)r  the 
chief  released  his  hold  of  the  bridle,  and  retired  a 
short  distance  with  his  companions  to  hold  a  consulta- 
tion, the  result  of  which  was  his  again  stepping  for- 
ward, and  inquiring  if  the  gentleman  was  the  son  of 

the  consul  of  the  town  of  T ,  and  beinq-  answered 

in  the  affirmative,  the   "  capitan,"  with  much  feeling, 

*  Leromenos  signifies  soiled,  which  among  the  Greeks  is  the  highest 
title  of  a  brigand  bravo,  evinced  in  the  filtli  of  his  long  worn  and 
unwashed  fustanalla. 


56  The  People  of  Turkey.  i-r.  i. 

declared  he  was  free  to  i)ui'sue  liis  Avay,  for  liis  father 
had  rendered  many  good  and  noble  services  to  the 
Greek  families  of  Thessal}-  and  E pirns,  and  had  saved 
the  lives  and  property  of  many  others.  "  Besides," 
added  he,  "we  love  and  respect  the  English.  But  a  few 
miles  hence  you  will  fall  in  with  the  camp  of  old  A. 
Pasha,  who,  with  800  troops  and  two  gmis,  intends  to 
surromid  j-onder  mountain,  where  he  expects  to  entrapy 
and  chase  us  like  wild  beasts.  The  price  of  your  free- 
dom is  your  word  of  honour  not  to  reveal  to  him  your 
meeting  with  us  until  to-morrow  ;  when  that  is  given, 
your  escort  will  be  allowed  to  pass  unmolested."  Mr. 
F.  then  contmued  his  jomniey,  and  a  couple  of  hours 
brought  him  to  the  camp  of  his  friend  the  brigand- 
chasing  Pasha,  who  gave  him  an  excellent  supper, 
and  entertained  him  with  the  plan  of  his  next  day's 
assault  on  the  brigand  band,  to  which  he  had  patiently 
to  listen,  bound  as  he  was  by  his  word  not  to  reveal 
what  he  knew  of  their  whereabouts  until  the  next  day. 
As  the  game  the  Pasha  expected  to  entrap  escaped  him 
on  the  morrow,  the  revelation  naturally  annoj^ed  him ; 
but  he  Avas  too  well  aware  of  the  value  an  Englishman 
placed  upon  his  pledged  word,  even  to  a  brigand,  to  find 
fault  with  the  reticence  of  his  friend  on  that  occasion. 
The  Greek  aristocracy  has  almost  disappeared,  and 
the  nation  seems  now  eminently  democratic,  though 
fond  of  giving  titles  to  persons  of  position,  such  as 
"Your   Worship,"    "Your   Honour,"    "Your   High- 


CH.  11.  '' Adelphdy  57 

ness,"  etc.,  and  "  Your  Holiness "  to  the  clergj'. 
Such  terms  are  smoothly  mtroduced  in  epistolary 
addresses  or  used  in  conversation,  so  long  as  this  is 
carried  on  with  calmness  and  reflection  ;  but  directly 
discussion  becomes  animated,  and  the  speaker,  what- 
ever his  condition,  excited,  all  such  highflown  phrases 
are  discarded  and  exchanged  for  that  more  natural  to 
the  Greek  fraternal  feeling,  the  word  "Adelphe" 
(brother),  which  never  fails  to  grate  upon  the  ear  of 
Englishmen  in  the  East. 

It  certainly  had  this  effect  upon  one  of  our  old 
consuls  who  had  rather  a  hast}^  temper  and  was  a  strict 
observer  of  etiquette.  On  one  occasion  he  had  to  listen 
to  an  excited  Greek  who  had  a  dispute  with  another, 
and  heard  the  title  of  Adelphe  addressed  to  him  by 
the  complainant,  who,  to  make  matters  worse,  was  by 
no  means  such  a  respectable  person  as  could  be 
wished.  The  indignant  consul  exclaimed  in  Greek, 
"  Brother  !  I  am  no  brother  of  yours  !  "  and  was  pro- 
ceeding to  render  his  assm-ance  more  effectual  by  a 
vigorous  and  unexpected  movement  of  his  foot,  when 
he  lost  his  balance  and  was  stretched  on  the  floor. 
This  unforeseen  aspect  of  affairs  appeared  so  comical 
to  him  that  he  indulged  in  a  hearty  peal  of  laughter, 
in  which  the  Greek,  though  poHtely  asking  after  his 
injuries,  joined — in  his  sleeve. 

The  charges  raised  most  frequently  against  the 
Greeks  are  theii-  want   of    honesty  in  their  dealings 


58  The  People  of  Turkey.  ft.  i. 

with  strangers,  and  their  general  unscrupuloiisness 
in  business  transactions.  These  accusations,  in  great 
part  well  founded,  are  due  to  the  unnatural  position  in 
which  the  rayah  is  placed.  Every  Greek,  who  is  truly 
a  Greek  in  heart,  (and  I  have  known  few  who  were  not 
so,)  must  detest  and  dislike  his  rulers,  and  direct  his 
energies  to  promoting,  openly  or  secretl}^  the  interest 
of  his  nation.  In  order  to  do  this,  however,  he  must 
work  in  the  dark,  and  strive  to  undermine  the  interests 
of  his  masters  :  consequentl}'  the  mask  of  hypocrisj'' 
has  to  he  worn  by  all  in  the  same  wa3\  To  cheat  the 
Turks  in  small  matters  when  he  can,  in  revenge  for 
grosser  injuries  he  is  liable  to  receive  from  them, 
becomes  one  of  his  objects.  His  is  not  the  only  sub- 
ject race  that  evinces  a  laxity  of  principle  and  want 
of  morality  in  the  transaction  of  business.  He  is 
sharp  in  its  dispatch,  perhaps  sharper  than  some 
others,  but  no  worse  than  they  in  the  manner  in  which 
he  carries  on  his  trade. 

I  have  often  heard  this  subject  discussed  in  all  its 
bearings,  and  the  statements  of  European  as  well  as 
native  merchants  appeared  to  agree  on  the  main 
pomt — that  with  the  corrupt  administration,  and  the 
joerpetual  necessity  of  having  recourse  to  bribery  in 
order  to  facilitate  the  course  of  business,  honest  and 
straightforward  dealing  was  out  of  the  question.  "  We 
must,"  said  a  wealthy  French  merchant,  "do  in  Turkey 
as  the  Turks  do,  or  else  seek  a  fortune  elsewhere." 


CH.  11.  Greek  v.  Jezu.  59 

The  following  incident  out  of  innumerable  others  will 
give  an  idea  of  how  enterprise  is  encouraged  and 
business  carried  on  in  this  countr}'. 

Some  Jews  in  the  town  of  L had  established  a 

soap  factor}',  producing  a  bad  article  and  selling  it  at 
high  prices.  Subsequently  some  Cretan  Greeks  set  up 
a  rival  estabhshment  in  the  same  town.  The  Cretans 
enjoyed  a  great  repute  in  Turkey  for  this  branch  of  in- 
dustry, and  offered  their  soaps  to  the  public  at  a  lower 
j)rice  than  the  Jews,  who  were  thrown  into  the  shade  ; 
these  therefore  had  to  invent  some  plan  to  ruin  their 
rivals.  Both  factories  imported  then-  own  oil  from  the 
Greek  islands,  and  paid  the  duties  in  kind  or  in  cash. 
The  Greeks  adopted  the  former  method,  and  the  Jews, 
aware  of  the  fact,  presented  themselves  at  the  custom- 
house, estimated  the  oil  the  Greeks  received  at  double 
its  value,  and  transported  a  portion  of  it  to  their  pre- 
mises, thus  obliging  the  Greeks  to  pay  double  dut}- — 
a  serious  matter,  which,  if  not  remedied,  would  ruin 
theii"  business.  They  decided  upon  ofiering  the  Jews 
privately  half  of  the  extra  duty  they  were  called  upon 
by  them  to  pay  to  the  revenue.  But  on  a  second  cargo 
of  oil  being  imported  they  abstained  from  paying  that 
sum  to  the  Jews,  who  thereupon  made  them  paj'  double 
duty  a  second  time,  which  so  exasperated  the  Greeks 
that  they  resolved  to  have  their  revenge.  So  sending 
a  fresh  order  for  oil,  they  instructed  their  agent  to 
have  two  of  the  barrels  filled  with  water,  and  marked 


6o  The  People  of  Turkey.  it.  i. 


with  some  sigii.  This  cargo  on  arriving  was  left  by 
the  Greeks  in  the  custom-house  until  the  Friday 
afternoon,  when  they  went  to  clear  it.  The  Jews,  made 
aware  of  this  fact  \)j  their  spies,  also  presented  them- 
selves, estimated  the  oil,  as  formerly,  at  double  its 
value,  and  offered  to  purchase  the  two  barrels  left  as 
payment  of  duty.  The  Greeks  prolonged  the  affair 
until  there  was  only  just  time  for  the  Jews  to  take 
away  their  purchase,  but  not  to  inspect  it  without 
breaking  the  Sabbath.  On  the  following  evening  the 
Jews  discovered  the  trick  that  had  been  played  upon 
them,  and  exposed  it  to  the  custom-house  officials,  de- 
manding redress.  The  Greeks,  summoned  to  appear 
and  answer  the  charge,  denied  that  the  swindle  had 
been  practised  b}^  them,  and  exposed  the  dishonest 
dealings  of  the  Jews  towards  them,  saying  that  it  must 
have  been  they  who  abstracted  the  oil  and  replaced  it 
with  water,  with  the  object  of  cheating  the  Customs. 
The  authorities,  unwillmg  to  take  further  trouble  about 
the  matter,  sent  away  both  parties,  and  would  have 
nothing  more  to  do  with  the  case.  The  Jews  in  the 
meantime  were  inconsolable ;  and  when  the  Cretans 
thought  they  had  been  sufficiently  punished,  the}'  con- 
fessed the  trick,  and  offered  to  make  amends  by  re- 
fundmg  the  money  they  had  paid  for  the  casks  if  they 
Avould  go  with  them  to  the  Rabbi  and  take  an  oath  to 
make  no  more  attempts  to  injure  their  business  by 
dishonest  means. 


CH.   II. 


In  Fine.  6i 


The  131'incipal  Greek  merchants  trade  under  foreign 
protection,  as  it  afiords  them  gTeater  security  and  free- 
dom from  the  intrigues  of  the  ill-disposed. 

To  sum  up.  The  subject  Greek  of  Turkey  has  his 
vices :  he  is  over-ambitious,  conceited,  too  diplomatic 
and  wily;  and,  in  common  with  most  merchants,  Euro- 
pean or  Eastern,  in  Turkey,  he  does  his  best  to  cheat 
the  Turks — and  occasionally  extends  the  practice 
further,  not  without  excellent  precedent.  But  these 
are  the  vices  of  a  race  long  kept  in  serviiude  and  now 
awaking  to  the  sense  of  a  great  ancestry:  the  servitude 
has  produced  the  servile  fault  of  double-dealing  and 
dishonesty ;  and  the  pride  of  a  noble  past  has  engen- 
dered the  conceit  of  the  present.  Such  vices  are  but 
passing  deformities  :  they  are  the  shaq)  angles  and 
bony  length  of  the  girl-form  that  will  in  time  be  per- 
fected in  beauty.  These  faults  will  disappear  with  the 
spread  of  education  and  the  restoring  of  freedom 
long  withheld.  The  quick  intellect  and  fine  mettle  of 
the  Greek,  like  his  lithe  body,  descended  from  a  nation 
of  heroes,  are  destined  to  great  things.  The  name 
alone  of  Hellenes  carries  with  it  the  prescriptive  right 
of  speaking  and  doing  nobly:  and  the  modern  Hellenes 
will  not  disown  their  birthright. 


CHAPTER   III. 

THE    ALBANIANS. 

Albania  little  known  to  Travellers — Character  of  the  Country — 
Isolation  and  Neglect — Products — The  Land-holders — Ali  Bey's 
Eevolution — Albanian  Towns — The  Albanian's  House  his  Castle 
in  a  Literal  Sense — Blood  Feuds — Villages — Unapproachable 
Position — The  Defence  of  Souli — Joannina — Beautiful  Site — 
Ali  Pacha's  Improvements — Greek  Enterprise — The  Albanians — 
Separate  Tribes — The  Ghegs — The  Tosks — Character  of  the 
Latter — Superiority  of  the  Ghegs — Respect  for  Women— An 
Adventure  with  a  Brigand  Chief — Gheg  Gratitude — A  Point 
of  Honoi;r  with  an  Albanian  Servant — Eeligion  among  the 
Albanians — Education  among  the  Tosks — Warlike  Character  of 
the  Albanians — Use  of  the  Gun — The  Vendetta — Women  to  the 
Eescue — Albanian  Women  in  General — Female  Adornment — 
Emigration — Mutual  Assistance  Abroad  —The  Albanian  Cha- 
racter— Recklessness — Love  of  Display — Improvidence — Pride — 
Hatred  of  the  Turks,  reciprocated  to  the  Full. 

The  Albanians,  like  most  of  the  races  of  minor 
importance  inhabiting  Eurojoean  Turkey,  are  httle 
known  to  the  civilised  world.  Albania,  with  its  im- 
passable momitains,  broken  by  deep  and  precipitous 
ravines,  the  footways  of  torrents,  has  been  visited  only 
by  those  few  travellers  who  have  had  enough  courage 
and  adventurous  spirit  to  penetrate  into  its  fastnesses. 
This  country,  occupying  the  place  of  the  aiicient  Illy- 
ria  and  Epirus,  was  in  the  middle  ages  called  Arvanasi, 
and  later  on  Arnaoutlik  by  the  Tm'ks  and  Arvanitia 


cii.  III.  Albania.  63 


by  the  Greeks ;  but  in  the  native  tongue  it  is  called 
Skiperi,  or  "  land  of  rocks."  It  is  divided  into  Upper 
and  Lower  Albania,  and  forms  two  vilaj'ets,  that  of 
Scutari  (comprising  the  provinces  of  Berat,  El  Bassan, 
Ochrida,  Uj^per  and  Lower  Dibra,  Tirana,  Candia, 
Dui'atzo,  Cruia,  Tessi,  Scutari,  Dulcigno,  and  Pod- 
goritza),  and  that  of  Joannina,  in  Epirus  (comprising 
Joannina,  Konitza,  Paleopogoyani,  Argyrokastro,  Del- 
vino,  Parakalanio,  Paramythia,  Margariti,  Leapourie 
or  Arbar,  and  Avlona). 

Owing  to  the  mountainous  character  of  the  country, 
and  the  turbulent  and  warlike  disposition  of  its  inha- 
bitants, it  is  still  unexplored  in  many  parts,  j)oorly 
cultivated  in  others,  and  everywhere  much  neglected 
in  its  rich  and  fertile  valleys.  Unfortunatel}^  agricul- 
ture, still  in  a  very  primitive  and  neglected  condition 
throughout  Turkey,  is  especially  so  in  Albania.  This 
neglect,  however  prejudicial  to  the  well-being  of  the 
inhabitants,  rather  heightens  the  wild  beauty  of  the 
scenery,  the  changing  grandeur  and  loveliness  of 
which  alternately  awes  and  delights  the  traveller. 

Shut  out  from  the  civilised  Avorld  by  the  want  of 
roads  and  means  of  communication,  all  the  natural 
advantages  the  country  possesses  have  remained  sta- 
tionary, and  its  beauty  and  fertihty  turned  to  little 
account  by  the  wild  and  semi-savage  population  that 
inhabits  it. 

The  prmcipal  productions  of  Illvrian  Albania  are 


64  The  People  of   Tui'key.  pt.  i. 

horses,  sheep,  and  oxen,  reared  in  tlie  valleys  of  the 
Moiisakia ;  gram  is  extensively  grown  at  Tirana  ;  and 
rye  and  Indian  corn  are  grown  in  El  Bassan ;  and  in 
some  parts  of  Dibra  a  coarse  kind  of  silk  is  manufac- 
tm'ed  into  home-spun  tissues,  and  used  for  the  elabo- 
rate embroidery  of  the  picturesque  national  costume. 
A  stout  felt  used  for  the  ca-pa,  or  cloak,  is  made  of  wool. 
A  kind  of  red  leather,  and  other  nrticles  of  minor  im- 
portance, are  also  manufactured  in  these  parts. 

Epirus,  or  Lower  Albania,  owing  to  its  more  favour- 
able situation  and  the  mildness  of  its  climate,  is  by 
far  the  more  fertile  and  better  cultivated  of  the  two 
vilayets.  In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  products, 
it  grows  rice,  cotton,  olives,  tobacco,  oranges,  citrons, 
grajies,  and  cochineal.  Though  agriculture  is  carried 
on  in  the  same  primitive  manner,  richer  harvests  are 
produced,  and,  as  shown  by  the  yearly  returns,  there 
is  a  steady  increase  of  the  export  trade. 

Albania  abounds  in  minerals,  but  the  mines  are 
little  known,  stiU  less  worked.  Hot  springs,  possess- 
ing valuable  medicinal  qualities,  are  also  to  be  found 
in  many  places,  but  the  country  people  are  totally 
ignorant  of  their  properties,  and  take  the  waters 
indiscriminately  for  any  ailments  they  may  happen  to 
have,  and,  in  obedience  to  the  old  superstitious  reve- 
rence for  the  spirits  of  the  fountains,  even  drink  from 
several  different  sources  in  the  hope  of  gaining  favour 
with  their  respective  nymphs. 


cii.  III.  Landowners.  65 

The  large  landowners,  both  in  Upper  and  Lower 
Albania,    are    Mohammedans,    often    perverted  from 
Christianity.     Tliey  still  exercise  a  desjiotic  and  un- 
limited  control    over    the   peasants,    and    show   the 
convert's  proverbial  spmt  of  intolerance  towards  their 
brethren  who  hold  fast  the  faith  of  their  fathers.     At 
the  beginning  of  this  centur}',  and  before  Ali  Pasha 
had  made   himself  the  complete  master  of  Joannina, 
much  of  the  landed  proj^erty  in  Lower  Albania  was 
held  by  Christians,  and  many  semi-independent  vil- 
lages, entirely  inhabited   by  Christians,  were   to   be 
found  scattered  all  over  the  country.     Their  number 
was  sadly  diminished  during  the  revolutionary   con- 
vulsion that  upset  the  country.    The  property  of  many 
Chi'istian  landholders  experienced  the  same  fate.  Theii- 
estates  were  snatched  from  their  lawfiil  owners  by  the 
wily,  avaricious,  and  hypocritical  despot,  who,  employ- 
ing by  turns  the  three  methods  of  force,  fraud,  and 
nominal  compensation,   drove   away  the   owners  and 
appropriated  the  lands  to  liimself.     After  his  death 
all  these  lands  passed  to  the  crown  as  Imlalc  property, 
and  were  never  restored  to  their  former  possessors. 

The  landed  property  in  both  Upper  and  Lower 
Albania  still  retains  much  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
species  of  feudal  system  which  once  prevailed  through- 
out Turkey  ;  but  instead  of  the  rule  of  a  few  powerful 
Beys  or  one  single  despot,  a  legion  of  petty  tyrants 
hold  the  people  in  bondage.     Yet  there  may  be  found 

VOL.    I.  F 


66  The  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  i. 

among  the  landholders  a  few,  poorer  than  the  rest, 
who  are  respected  for  their  integrity  and  for  their 
paternal  treatment  of  the  peasants  on  their  estates. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  towns  and  villages  in 
Upper  Albania  differs  yery  little  from  that  of  other 
towns  and  villages  in  Turkey.  The  same  want  of 
finish  and  clumsiness  of  workmanship  prevail  in  all 
the  Albanian  houses,  which  are  usually  detached  from 
one  another  and  stand  in  court-yards  surrounded  by 
high  walls.  Some  of  these  dwellings  are  complete 
fortresses ;  but  this  is  not  on  account  of  the  terrible 
never-ending  blood-feuds  transmitted  from  generation 
to  generation,  which  make  each  man's  life  (out-of- 
doors)  the  least  secure  of  his  possessions.  In  times 
of  peace  his  house  can  be  left  with  open  gates,  and  is 
held  sacred  and  respected  even  by  the  vilest  and  most 
desperate  characters  :  for  it  is  a  point  of  honour  with 
an  Albanian  never  to  incur  the  disgrace  of  shedding  a 
man's  blood  m  his  own  house  ;  but  the  moment  he 
crosses  the  threshold,  lie  is  at  the  mercy  of  his  foe. 

An  Albanian  chieftain,  who  had  a  deadly  quarrel 
with  a  neighbour  and  consequently  was  in  terror  of 
his  life,  was  compelled  to  stay  within  doors  for  twelve 
long  years,  knowing  the  risk  he  ran  if  the  threshold 
were  crossed.  Finally,  craving  a  little  liberty,  he  ob- 
tained an  armistice  and  was  allowed  perfect  freedom 
for  a  short  space  of  time. 

In  times  of  open  contention  the  houses  are  fortified 


CH.  III.  Albanian  Houses.  67 

and  guarded  by  armed  bands,  who  conceal  themselves 
in  strongholds  attached  to  some  of  the  buildmgs, 
watch  for  the  approach  of  the  enem}^  and  open  fire 
upon  them  from  the  loop-holes  with  which  the  walls 
are  pierced. 

The  furniture  of  their  dwelling-houses  is  scanty, 
poor,  and  comfortless.  Some  valuable  carpets,  a  gor- 
geously embroidered  sofa  in  the  reception-room,  and  a 
few  indispensable  articles,  are  all  they  possess.  The 
streets  are  narrow  and  badl}'  paved,  and  look  dismal 
and  deserted.  The  bazars  and  shops  are  inferior  to 
those  of  most  of  the  towns  of  Turkey.  They  contain 
no  variety  of  objects  for  use  or  ornament  beyond  those 
absolutely  necessary  for  domestic  purposes. 

The  villages  are  far  more  curious  and  interesting  to 
the  traveller  than  the  towns.  Some  of  these  in  Upper 
Albania,  in  mountainous  districts,  are  at  a  gi'eat  dis- 
tance from  each  other,  and  are  perched  up  on  the 
summits  of  high  rocks  that  tower  above  each  other  in 
successive  ranges,  in  some  places,  forming  a  natural 
and  impassable  rampart  to  the  village,  in  others  trod- 
den into  steep  paths  where  the  goat  doubtless  delights 
to  climb,  but  where  man  experiences  any  but  agreeable 
sensations. 

Lower  Albania,  better  known  to  travellers,  is  less 
rugged  and  wild  in  appearance.  But  here  and  there 
we  meet  with  mountainous  districts — such  as  the  far- 
famed  canton  of  Souli,  which  in  the  time  of  Ali  Pasha 

F    2 


68  The  People  of  Turkey.  rx.  i. 

numbered  eleven  villages,  some  scattered  on  the  peaks 
of  mountains,  others  studding  their  skirts  ;  while  the 
terrible  Acheron  gloomily  wound  its  way  through  the 
deep  gorges  that  helped  to  secure  the  river  its  victims. 

Souli,  defended  by  its  13,000  inhabitants,  withstood 
the  siege  of  the  dreaded  pasha's  armies,  held  them  in 
check  for  fifteen  j'ears,  and  acquired  und3'ing  fame 
in  the  history  of  the  war  of  Greek  independence  for 
heroism  hardly  surpassed  by  the  most  valiant  feats 
of  the  ancients,  and  with  which  nothing  in  modern 
warfare  can  compare.  Every  SouHot,  man,  woman, 
and  child,  was  ready  to  perish  in  the  defence.  The 
women  and  children  who  had  fought  so  long  by  the 
side  of  their  husbands  and  fathers,  at  the  last  ex- 
tremity, preferring  death  to  captivity  and  dishonour, 
threw  themselves  from  the  rocks  into  the  dark  stream 
below,  while  the  few  that  survived  the  final  destruc- 
tion cut  their  way  through  their  enemies,  and  were 
scattered  over  Greece  to  tell  the  sad  tale  of  the  fall 
of  Souli. 

The  plateau  of  Joannina  is  entirely  surrounded  by 
wooded  mountains,  and  is  from  1,200  to  1,500  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  On  this  table  land  is  a  lake 
about  fourteen  miles  in  length  and  six  in  breadth,  on 
the  rich  borders  of  which  rises  the  town  of  Joannina, 
like  a  fairy  palace  in  an  enchanted  land.  This  town, 
which  contains  25,000  inhabitants,  became  the  favourite 
abode  of  Ali  Pasha,  who  transformed  and  embellished 


CH.  Ill,  Joannina.  69 

it  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  founded  schools  and 
libraries. 

The  edifices  erected  by  liim  were  partly  destroyed 
by  his  followers,  when  his  power  was  supposed  to  have 
reached  its  end,  together  with  the  gilded  kiosks  and 
superb  palaces  built  for  his  own  enjoyment.  All 
that  Joannina  can  boast  of  at  the  present  day  is  the 
exceeding  beauty  of  its  situation,  and  the  activity 
that  Greek  enterprise  has  given  to  its  commerce,  and 
the  excellent  schools  and  syllogae  that  have  been 
established  and  are  said  to  be  doing  wonders  in 
improving  and  educating  the  new  generation  of 
Epirus. 

The  Albanians  are  divided  into  several  distinct 
races,  each  presenting  marked  features  of  difference 
from  the  other  and  occupying  separate  districts. 
Those  of  Upper  Albania  are  called  Ghegs,  and 
inhabit  that  portion  of  the  country  called  Ghegueria, 
which  extends  from  the  frontiers  of  Bosnia  and  Monte- 
negro to  Berat. 

These  men  are  broad-chested,  tall,  and  robust,  have 
regular  features,  and  a  proud,  manly,  independent 
mien.  Theii'  personal  attractions  are  not  a  little 
enhanced  by  their  rich  and  picturesque  national  cos- 
tume— a  pair  of  cloth  gaiters  ;  an  embroidered  jacket 
with  open  sleeves  ;  a  double-breasted  waistcoat ;  the 
Greek  fustanella  (white  calico  kilt),  surmounted  by  a 
cloth  skirt  opened  in  front ;  a  kemer,  or  leather  belt, 


70  The  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  i. 

decorated  -with  silver  ornaments,  and  holding  a  pistol, 
yataghan,  and  other  arms  of  fine  workmanship.  The 
whole  costume  is  richly  Avorked  with  gold  thread. 
On  the  head  is  worn  a  fez,  wider  at  the  top  than 
round  the  head,  and  ornamented  with  a  long  tassel. 

The  Tosks  inhabiting  Lower  Albania,  in  the 
sandjaks  of  Avlona  and  Berat,  and  the  Tchames  and 
Liaps  of  the  sandjaks  of  Delvina  and  Joannina, 
designate  their  country  Tchamouria  and  Liapouria. , 
These  latter  are  supposed  to  be  direct  descendants 
of  ancient  Hellenes,  as  they  speak  the  Greek  lan- 
guage with  greater  purit}'  than  the  rest ;  and  certainly 
some  of  their  characteristic  features  bear  a  great 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  All  the 
Albanians  of  Epirus  use  the  Greek  language,  and  are 
more  conversant  with  it  than  with  Turkish,  which  in 
some  places  is  not  spoken  at  all. 

The  Tosks  are  tall  and  well  built,  and  extremel}' 
agile  in  all  their  movements  ;  their  features  are  regu- 
lar and  intelligent,  but  lilce  most  Albanians  they  have 
a  fierce,  cruel,  and  sometimes  cunning  cast  of  counte- 
nance, and  a  swagger  in  their  gait,  by  Avhich  tJiey  can 
easily  be  distinguished  from  the  other  races,  even  when 
divested  of  their  national  costume.  Thej'^  are  of  a  war- 
like and  ferocious  disposition,  j-et  they  have  noble  quali- 
ties Avhich  atone  in  some  measure  for  their  ferocity 
and  j)roduce  a  very  mixed  impression  of  the  national 
character.     They  are  a  constant  source  of  dread  to 


CH.  III.  TJic  Ghcg's.  71 


strangers,  but  objects  of  implicit  confidence  and  trust 
to  those  who  have  gained  their  friendshij)  and  earned 
their  gratitude. 

In  braver}',  trustworthiness,  and  honour,  the  Ghegs 
bear  the  pahn.  No  Gheg  will  scruple  to  "take  to 
the  road  "  if  he  is  short  of  mone}'  and  has  nothing 
better  to  do.  If  any  man  he  may  meet  on  the  high 
road  disregards  his  command,  "  Des  dour "  (stand 
still),  he  thinks  nothing  of  cutting  his  throat  or 
settling  him  with  a  pistol-shot :  but  if  a  Gheg 
has  once  tasted  your  bread  and  salt  or  owes  you  a 
debt  of  gratitude  or  is  employed  in  your  service,  all 
his  terrible  qualities  vanish  and  he  becomes  the  most 
devoted,  attached,  and  faithful  of  friends  and  servants. 
Generally  speaking,  the  Ghegs  are  abstemious  and 
not  much  addicted  to  the  vices  of  Asiatics.  Women 
are  respected  by  them  and  seldom  exposed  to  the 
attacks  of  brigands  or  libertines. 

These  characteristics  are  so  general  and  so  deeply 
rooted  in  the  character  of  the  Gheg,  that  consuls, 
merchants,  and  others,  who  need  brave  and  faithful 
retainers,  employ  them  in  preference  to  men  of  any 
other  race. 

I  was  once  making  a  journey  across  country  to  a 
watering-place  in  Albania,  and  set  out  for  this  deserted 
and  isolated  spot  with  a  capital  escort ;  accompanied 
moreover  by  a  wealthy  Christian  dignitary  of  the 
town  in  which  I  had  been  staying.     Dming  a  short 


72  The  People  of  TitrJzey.  pt.  i. 

halt  we  made  in  a  mountain  gorge  to  refresh  our- 
selves with  luncheon,  near  a  ruined  and  deserted 
hekleme  or  guard-house,  suddenly  a  fine  but  savage- 
looking  Albanian  appeared  before  us.  He  was  followed 
by  several  other  sturdy  fellows,  all  armed  to  the  teeth. 
My  friend  turned  pale,  and  the  escort,  taldag  to  their 
guns,  stood  on  the  defensive. 

But  the  feeling  of  fear  soon  vanished  from  my 
people,  as  the  Albanians  approached  them,  and 
instead  of  uttering  the  dreaded  "  Des  dourf 
gracefully  put  their  hands  on  their  breasts  and  re- 
peated the  much  more  agreeable  welcome  word 
"  Merhaba  !  "  The  band  chatted  with  my  men,  wliilst 
their  chieftain  approached  my  travelling  companion, 
and  entered  into  conversation  with  him,  every  now 
and  then  giving  a  glance  at  me  wuth  an  expression  of 
wonder  on  his  face.  At  last,  he  inquired  who  I  was, 
and  declared  he  was  astonished  at  the  independent 
spirit  of  the  Inglis  lady,  who,  in  spite  of  fatigue  and 
danger,  had  ventured  so  far. 

He  willingly  accepted  our  offer  of  luncheon  ;  first 
dipping  a  piece  of  bread  in  salt  and  eating  it.  JNfy 
horse  was  then  brought  up  ;  the  chief  stood  by, 
and  gallantly  held  the  stirrup  while  I  mounted.  I 
thanked  him,  and  we  rode  off  at  a  gallop.  After  we 
had  gone  some  distance  on  our  road,  my  friend  heaved 
a  deep  sigh  of  relief,  and  said  to  me,  "  Do  you  know 
who  has  been  lunching  with  us,  holding  your  stirrup, 


CH.  III.  Albanian  Bfigands.  ']2> 

and  assisting  you  to  mount  ?  It  is  the  fiercest  and 
most  terrible  of  Albanian  brigand  chiefs  in  this  neigh- 
bourhood !  For  the  last  seven  years  he  and  his  band 
have  been  the  terror  of  this  kaza,  in  consequence  of 
their  robberies  and  murders,  respecting  none  but  those 
of  your  sex, — guided,  I  presume,  in  tliis,  by  the  super- 
stition, or  let  us  say  point  of  honour,  some  Albanians 
strictl}'  observe,  that  it  is  cowardly  and  unlucky  to 
attack  women." 

An  adventure  that  lately  happened  to  a  friend  of 
mine  will  show  the  manner  in  which  Ghegs  re- 
member a  good  service  rendered  them.  Some  years 
ago,  a  few  Albanians,  personally  known  to  the  gentle- 
man in  question,  who  owns  a  large  estate  in  Mace- 
donia, heard  that  three  of  their  fellow-countrymen  had 
got  into  trouble.  Through  the  influence  Mr.  A.  pos- 
sessed with  the  local  authorities,  their  release  was  ob- 
tained. The  incident  had  almost  passed  out  of  his 
memory  when  it  was  unexpectedly  recalled  at  a  critical 
moment.  Some  Albanian  beys,  who  had  a  spite  against 
Mr.  A.,  in  consequence  of  a  disputed  portion  of  land, 
resolved  to  take  advantage  of  the  present  state  of 
anarchy  and  disorder  in  the  country  to  have  liim  or 
his  son  assassinated  the  next  time  either  of  them 
should  visit  the  estate.  The  villanous  scheme  was 
entrusted  to  a  band  of  Albanian  brigands  that  were 
known  to  be  lurking  in  the  vicinity  of  Mr.  A.'s  estate. 
At  harvest  time,  as  he  was  about  to  start   for  the 


74  J^^^c  People  of  T^irJccy.  rx.  i. 


countiy,  he  received  a  crumpled  dirty  little  epistle, 
written  in  the  Greek-Albanian  dialect,  to  this 
effect : — 

"  Much  esteemed  Effencli,  and  venerated  benefactor, 
"  Some  3'ears  ago  j-oiir  most  humble  servant  and 
his  companions  were  in  difficulties.  You  saved  them 
from  prison  and  perhaps  from  the  halter.  The  service 
has  never  been  forgotten,  and  the  debt  we  owe  to  j-ou 
will  be  shortl^y  redeemed  by  my  informing  you  that  the 
robber  band  of  Albanians  in  the  vicinity  of  your 
chiftlik  have  received  instructions  and  have  accepted 
the  task  of  shooting  you  down  the  first  time  you  come 
in  this  direction.  I  and  my  valiant  men  will  be  on 
the  look-out  to  prevent  the  event  if  possible,  but  we 
warn  you  to  be  on  your  guard,  for  your  life  is  in 
danger. 

"  Kissing  your  hand  respectfully, 

*'  I  sign  myself, 

" A    MEMBER    OF    THE    VERY   BAND  !  " 

Another  friend  related  to  me  a  strange  adventure 
he  had  with  an  Albanian  ex-brigand,  who  for  some 
time  had  been  in  his  service.  This  gentleman  was  a 
milhonaire  of  the  town  of  P.,  who  in  his  younger  daj'S 
often  collected  the  tithes  of  his  whole  district,  and 
consequently  had  occasion  to  travel  far  into  the  in- 
terior and  bring  back  with  him  large  sums  of  money. 
During  these  tours  the  faithful  Albanian  never  failed 
to  accompany  his  master.     On  one  occasion,  however, 


en.  III.  IKVLL^ 


Religion.  75 


when  they  had  i)enetrated  into  the  wildest  part  of  his 
jurisdiction,  his  servant  walked  into  the  room  where 
he  was  seated,  and  after  making  his  temenla,  or 
salute,  said,  "  Chorbadji,  I  shall  leave  j^ou  ;  therefore 
I  have  come  to  say  to  you  Allah  'semaiiadu  (good- 
bye)." 

"  Why,"  said  the  astonished  gentleman,  *'  what  is  to 
become  of  me  in  this  outlandish  place  without  you  ?  " 

"  Oh,"  was  the  response,  "I  leave  you  because  I 
have  consented  to  attack  and  rob  you,  and  as  such  an 
act  would  be  cowardly  and  treacherous  while  I  eat 
your  bread  and  salt,  I  give  you  notice  that  I  mean  to 
do  it  on  the  highway  as  you  return  home,  so  take 
what  precautions  you  like,  that  it  may  be  fair  play 
between  us."  This  said,  he  made  a  second  temenla 
and  disappeared. 

He  was  as  good  as  his  word ;  going  back  to  his 
former  profession,  he  soon  found  out  and  joined  a  band 
of  brigands  and  at  their  head  waylaid  and  attacked 
his  former  master,  who,  well  aware  of  the  character  of 
the  man  he  had  to  deal  with  and  the  dangers  that 
awaited  him,  had  taken  measures  accordingly  and 
provided  himself  with  an  escort  strong  enough  to 
overpower  the  brigands. 

The  Albanians  before  the  Turkish  conquest  pro- 
fessed the  Christian  religion,  which,  however,  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  very  deeply  rooted  in  the 
hearts  of  the  people  ;  from  time  immemorial  they  were 


7^  The  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  i. 


more  famous  for  their  warlike  propensities  and  adven- 
turous exploits  than  for  their  good  principles. 

After  the  conquest,  Islam,  finding  a  favourahle  soil 
in  which  to  plant  itself,  made  considerable  progress  in 
some  districts,  Avliere  the  inhabitants  willingly  adopted 
it  in  order  to  escape  x)ersecution  and  oppression.  This 
progress,  however,  was  not  very  extensive  until  the 
time  of  the  famous  Iskander  Beg,  or  Scanderbeg,  who 
played  so  prominent  a  roU  in  the  history  of  his 
country,  and  whose  desertion  of  the  Mohammedan 
and  adoption  of  the  Christian  religion  so  exasperated 
Sultan  Murad,  that  he  forthwith  ordered  that  most 
of  the  Christian  chui'ches  should  be  converted  into 
mosques  and  that  all  Epirots  should  be  circumcised 
under  pain  of  death. 

The  second  unpulse  Mohammedanism  received  in 
Albania  was  under  the  rule  of  Ali  Pasha,  when  whole 
villages  were  converted  to  Islam,  though  their  in- 
habitants to  this  day  bear  Christian  names  and  in 
some  cases  the  mother  or  wife  is  allowed  to  retain  the 
faith  of  her  fathers  and  will  keep  her  fasts  and  feasts 
and  attend  her  Christian  church  while  her  husband 
joins  the  Mussulman  congregation.  In  those  parts  of 
Epii'us,  however,  where  the  Greek  population  was  in 
the  majority  and  its  ignorant  though  devout  clergy 
had  influence  with  the  people,  they  held  fast  to  their 
religion  as  they  did  to  their  language. 

The  Mirdites  were  equally  steadfast  to  their  faith 


CH.  III. 


Mirdites.  7  7 


and  purpose,  and  have  remained  among  the  most 
faithful  and  devout  followers  of  the  Pope.  The 
number  of  Eoman  Catholic  Mirdites  is  reckoned  at 
about  140,000  souls,  scattered  in  the  different  dis- 
tricts of  Albania.  They  have  several  bishoprics,  and 
their  bishops  and  priests  are  sent  from  Eome  or 
Scutari.  The  Mirdites  make  fine  soldiers,  and  have 
often  been  engaged  by  the  Porte  as  contingent  troops, 
or  employed  in  active  service.  They  take  readily  to 
commerce  and  agriculture,  and  on  the  whole  may  be 
considered  the  most  advanced  and  civilised  of  the 
Illyrian  Albanians.  They  might,  however,  progress 
much  more  rapidly  if  their  pastors,  to  whose  guidance 
they  submit  themselves  implicitly,  would  follow  the 
example  of  the  Greeks  in  Epirus,  and  introduce  a 
more  liberal  course  of  instruction  ;  for  the  education  is 
at  present  very  limited  beyond  the  religious  branches. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  excessive  religious 
teaching  among  ignorant  people,  though  a  powerful 
preservative  of  the  faith,  tends  inevitably  to  render 
them  narrow-minded,  bigoted,  and  incapable  of  self- 
development. 

The  Mohammedanism  of  the  Albanians  is  not  very 
deeply  rooted,  nor  does  it  bear  the  stamp  of  the  true 
faith.  Followers  of  the  Prophet  in  Lower  Albania 
especially  may  be  heard  to  swear  alternately  by  the 
Panaghia  (blessed  Virgin)  and  the  Prophet,  without 
appearing  disposed  to  follow  too  closely  the  doctrines 


78  TJic  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  r. 

of  either  the  Bible  or  the  Koran.  It  is  an  undoubted 
fact  that  the  Moslems  of  Albania  contrast  very  un- 
favourably with  the  Christians. 

The  Tosks  are  held  in  ill-repute  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  they  seem  to  experience  in  defining  the 
difference  between  treachery  and  good  faith.  They 
are  clever,  and  have  made  more  progress  than  the 
Ghegs  in  the  civilisation  that  Greece  is  endeavouring 
to  infuse  among  her  neighbours.  Some  of  their  dis- 
tricts are  worthy  of  mention,  on  account  of  the  taste  for 
learning  displayed  by  their  inhabitants,  the  earnestness 
with  which  they  receive  instruction,  and  the  good  results 
that  have  already  crowned  their  praiseworthy  efforts. 

Zagora,  for  instance,  famous  as  having  afforded 
shelter  to  many  ^  Greeks  after  the  conquest  of  Con- 
stantinople, is  renowned  for  the  intelligence  and 
general  enlightenment  of  its  inhabitants.  The  sterile 
and  unproductive  soil  induces  the  men  to  rely  less 
upon  the  fruits  of  their  manual  toil  than  upon 
their  mental  labour,  consequently  most  of  them 
migrate  to  other  countries,  seeking  their  fortune. 
Some  take  to  commerce,  others  to  professions,  and 
after  realising  a  competence  they  return  to  their 
native  land  and  impart  the  more  advanced  ideas  their 
experience  has  given  them  to  their  compatriots  who 
have  not  enjoyed  the  same  privileges. 

The  women  of  Zagora  are  much  esteemed  for  their 
virtues  and  enlightenment.     Such  facts  as  these  make 


cii.  III.  Albajiian  Soldia^s.  79 

a  refreshing  contrast  to  the  dark  cloud  of  ignorance 
which,  in  spite  of  the  pure  sky  of  Alhania  and  the 
beauty  of  the  scenery,  still  hangs  thicldy  on  the  land, 
and  casts  a  shadow  where  Nature  meant  all  to  be 
sunshine. 

The  warlike  instincts  of  the  Albanian  find  more 
scope  for  action  in  the  Mohammedan  than  in  the 
Christian  religion.  They  gladly  accept  an  invitation 
to  fight  the  battles  of  the  Porte  or  those  of  any  nation 
that  will  pay  them.  This  help  must,  however,  be 
given  in  the  way  most  agreeable  to  themselves,  i.e.  as 
paid  contingents  under  the  command  of  their  own 
chieftains,  to  whom  they  show  impHcit  obedience 
and  fidelity.  Under  the  beloved  banner  of  their  Bey, 
legions  will  collect,  equally  ready  to  do  the  irregular 
work  of  the  Bashi-bazouks  or  to  be  placed  in  the 
regular  army. 

But,  as  a  rule,  the  Albanian  objects  to  ordinary 
conscription,  and  avoids  it,  if  possible,  by  a  direct 
refusal  to  be  enrolled,  or  else  makes  his  escape. 
When  on  the  road  to  the  seat  of  war,  a  regiment  of 
Albanians  is  a  terrible  scourge  to  the  country  it  passes 
through ;  like  locusts,  they  leave  nothmg  but  naked 
stalks  and  barren  ground  behind  them. 

The  principal  merits  of  the  Albanian  soldier  are  his 
rapidity  in  motion,  stead}^  aim,  carelessness  of  life, 
and  hardy  endurance  in  privation.  An  Albanian's 
gun  is  his  companion  and  his  means  of  subsistence  in 


8o  TJie  People  of  Turkey.  n-.  i. 

peace  or  war.  To  it  he  looks  for  his  daily  bread  more 
than  to  any  other  source,  and  he  uses  it  with  a  skill 
not  easily  matched. 

When  travelhng  in  Upper  Albania,  we  halted  one 
day  in  a  field  which  appeared  quite  uncultivated  and 
waste,  and  were  making  arrangements  for  our  mid-day 
meal,  when  an  Albanian  hekchi  (forest-keeper)  appeared 
on  the  scene  and  ordered  us  to  quit  the  spot,  as  it  was 
cultivated  ground.  Our  escort  remonstrated  with  the 
fellow,  saying  that  it  was  the  only  convenient  place 
near  for  a  halt,  and  that  now  we  had  alighted  we 
should  remain  where  we  were  until  we  had  finished 
our  meal. 

The  Albanian,  entirely  regardless  of  the  number  of 
the  escort  and  the  authority  of  government  servants, 
became  more  persistent  in  his  commands,  and  the 
guards  lost  patience  and  threatened  to  arrest  him  and 
take  him  before  the  Mudir  of  the  town  that  lay  a  little 
further  on.  "  The  Mudir,"  scornfully  repeated  the 
mountaineer,  "and  who  told  you  that  I  recognise  the 
authority  of  the  Mudir?"  Then  taking  his  long  gun 
from  his  shoulder,  he  held  it  up  and  said,  "  This  is 
my  authority,  and  no  other  can  influence  me  or  ac- 
quire any  power  over  me  !  " 

The  social  relations  of  the  Albanians  are  limited  to 
two  ideas.  Vendetta  and  bessa  (peace). 

In  cases  of  personal  insult  or  offence  the  vendetta  is 
settled  on  the  spot.     Both  parties  stand  up,  the  in- 


en.  III.  T/ie   Vendetta.  Si 

suited  full  of  indignation  and  thirsting  for  revenge, 
the  offender  repentant,  perhaps,  or  persistent.  The 
aggrieved  person,  even  in  the  former  case,  seldom 
yields  to  persuasion  or  softens  into  forgiveness ;  he 
draws  a  brace  of  pistols  and  presents  them  to  liis  an- 
tagonist to  make  his  choice.  The  little  fingers  of 
then'  left  hands  are  linked  together  and  they  fire 
simultaneously.  A  survivor  is  rare  in  such  cases,  and 
the  feud  thus  caused  between  the  relatives  of  both 
parties  is  perpetuated  from  generation  to  generation. 

It  takes  very  little  to  provoke  these  terrible  blood- 
feuds,  and  one  or  two  instances  that  have  come  under 
my  direct  notice  will  suffice  to  give  an  idea  of  their 
natm'e  and  the  violence  with  which  real  or  fancied 
insult  is  avenged. 

One  happened  while  I  was  at  Uskup.  The  cause 
was  nothing  more  weighty  than  a  contention  between 
two  Albanian  sportsmen,  who  were  disputing  the 
possession  of  a  hare  that  each  maintained  he  had 
shot.  The  dispute  became  so  violent  that  a  duel  was 
resorted  to  as  the  only  way  to  settle  it.  It  came  off 
on  the  common  in  the  presence  of  the  combatants' 
relatives  and  friends,  who  joined  in  the  quarrel;  and  a 
general  battle  ensued,  in  which  the  women  fought  side 
by  side  with  their  husbands  and  brothers.  A  girl  of 
seventeen,  a  sister  of  one  of  the  two  sportsmen,  fought 
with  the  courage  of  a  heroine,  and  with  a  success  worthy 
of  abetter  cause.    Fourteen  victims  fell  on  that  day. 

VOL.  I.  G 


$2  The  People  of  Turkey.  n.  i. 

The  Governor  of  Uskup,  -who  related  the  story  to  me, 
said  that  he  despah*ed  of  ever  seenig  these  savage 
people  yield  to  the  influence  of  their  more  refined 
neighhours,  or  become  entirely  submissive  to  the 
Sultan's  government.  But  great  changes  have  taken 
place  since  then  with  respect  to  their  submission  ta 
the  Porte.  The  Government  is  now  able  almost 
safely  to  send  governors  and  sub-governors  into 
Albania  to  collect  taxes  from  such  as  choose  to  pay 
them,  and  even  draw  a  certain  number  of  recruits 
from  the  most  turbulent  and  mdependent  districts. 

Another  of  these  lamentable  blood-feuds  happened 
in  Upper  Dibra,  and  was  witnessed  by  one  of  my 
friends  then  living  there. 

It  originated  in  two  lads  at  the  village  fountain 
throwing  stones  and  brealdng  the  pitcher  of  an 
Albanian  girl  who  had  come  to  fetch  water.  This- 
was  considered  an  insult  to  her  maidenhood  and 
was  at  once  made  the  cause  of  a  serious  quarrel  b}''  the 
friends  of  the  two  parties.  A  fight  ensued  in  which 
no  less  than  sixty  people  lost  their  lives.  Women's 
honour  is  held  in  such  high  esteem  in  these  wild 
regions  that  so  trivial  an  accident  suffices  to  cause  a 
terrible  destruction  of  life. 

Albanian  women  are  generally  armed,  not  for  the 
purpose  of  self-defence — no  Albanian  M^ould  attack  a 
woman  in  his  own  country — but  rather  that  they  may 
be  able  to  join  in  the  brawls  of  their  male  relatives,. 


en.  III.  Albanian   Women.  '^'^ 


and  fight  by  tlieir  side.  The  respect  entertained  for 
"women  accounts  for  a  strange  custom  prevalent 
among  Albanians, — that  of  offering  to  strangers  who 
wish  to  traverse  their  country  the  escort  of  a  woman. 
Thus  accompanied,  the  traveller  may  proceed  with 
safety  into  the  most  isolated  regions  without  any 
chance  of  harm  coming  to  him. 

The  Albanian  women  are  lively  and  of  an  in- 
dependent spirit,  but  utterly  unlettered.  Very  few 
of  the  Mohammedans  in  Lower  Albania  possess  any 
knowledge  of  reading  or  writing.  They,  are,  however, 
proud  and  dignified,  strict  observers  of  the  rules  of 
national  etiquette  ;  and  they  attach  great  importance 
to  the  antiquity  of  their  families,  and  regulate  their 
marriages  by  the  degrees  of  rank  and  lineage. 

The  natural  beauty  of  the  Albanian  girl  soon  dis- 
appears after  she  has  entered  upon  the  married  state. 
She  then  begins  to  d3'e  her  hair,  to  which  nature  has 
often  given  a  goldeu  hue,  jet  black ;  she  besmears  her 
face  with  a  pernicious  white  composition,  blackens  her 
teeth,  and  reddens  her  hands  with  henna ;  the  general 
effect  of  the  process  is  to  make  her  ugly  during  youth, 
and  absolutely  hideous  in  old  age.  The  paint  they  use 
is  not  only  most  destructive  to  the  complexion,  but 
also  to  tlie  teeth,  which  deca}'  rapidly  from  its  use.  I 
believe  they  blacken  their  teeth  artificially  to  hide  its 
effects.  On  my  inquiring  the  reason  of  this  strange 
custom  of  some  Albanian  ladies,  they  laughed  at  ni}' 

G  2 


84  The  People  of  Turkey.  it.  i. 


disapproval  of  it,  and  told  me  that  in  their  opinion  it 
is  only  the  fangs  of  dogs  that  should  be  white  ! 

Both  Christian  and  Mohammedan  Albanians,  dis- 
satisfied with  the  poverty  of  their  country  and  their 
incapability  of  developing  its  natural  resources  or 
profiting  by  them,  often  leave  it  and  migrate  to  other 
parts  of  Turkey  in  search  of  employment.  Large 
numbers  seek  military  service  in  Turkey,  Egypt,  and 
other  countries,  or  situations  as  guards,  herdsmen, 
etc.  Some  of  the  Christians  study  and  become  doctors, 
lawyers,  or  schoolmasters.  The  lower  classes  are 
masons,  carters,  porters,  servants,  dairymen,  butchers, 
etc. ;  their  wives  and  children  seldom  accompan}-  them, 
but  remain  at  home  to  look  after  their  belongings,  and 
content  themselves  with  an  occasional  visit  from  the 
assiduous  bread-winner. 

All  Albanians  call  themselves  Arkardasli  (brothers), 
and  when  away  from  their  homes  will  assist  and 
maintain  the  Kapoiissis  or  new-comers,  until  they 
obtain  emplo3^nent  through  the  instrumentalit}'-  of 
their  compatriots  already  established  in  the  town. 
Thus  assistance  is  given  in  small  towns  to  the 
Kapouss'is  to  defray  the  expenses  of  his  maintenance 
and  lodging  in  the  Khan.  When  he  obtains  a  place, 
lie  repays  the  money  in  small  instalments  until  the 
debt  is  acquitted. 

The  Albanian,  generall}^  a  gay,  reckless  fellow,  is 
alwaj^s  short  of  money :  many  among  the  better  condi- 


CI  I.  III.  Character.  85 

tioned  carry  their  fortune  on  their  person  in  the  shape 
of    rich    embroideries   on   their   handsome    costmiies 
and  vahiable  arms.     In  their  belt  is  contained  all  the 
money  they  possess.     When  the  fortune-seeker  has  to 
wait  a  long  time  for  the  fickle  goddess  to  smile  upon 
him,  and  the  forbearance  or  generosity  of  his  friends 
is  exhausted,  and  the  kemer  becomes  empty,  he  sells  his 
fine  arms   and  the  splendid  suit  of  clothes  follows  to 
the  same  fate.     But  the  Albanian,  ^hough  externally 
transformed,  will  be  by  no  means  crushed  in  spirit  or 
at  all  less  conceited  in  manner,  even  when  a  tattered 
rag  has  replaced  the  gaudy  fez,  and  a  coarse  aba  his 
fustanella  and  embroidered  jacket.  With  shoes  trodden 
down  at  heel  he  patiently  lounges  about  under  the 
name  of  Cldplak  until  the   expected  turn  of  fortune 
arrives.     Should  it  be  very  long  in  coming,  our  Alba- 
nian turns  the  tables  upon  the  goddess,  shoulders  his 
gun,  and  takes  to  the  hiuh  road. 

The  hessa  or  truce  is  the  time  Albanians  allow 
themselves  at  intervals  to  suspend  their  blood  feuds ; 
it  is  arranged  by  mutual  consent  between  the  contend- 
ing parties,  and  is  of  fixed  duration  and  strictly 
observed :  the  bitterest  enemies  meet  and  converse 
in  perfect  harmony  and  confidence. 

The  character  of  the  Albanians  is  simply  the  mixed 
unhewn  character  of  a  barbarous  people  ;  they  have 
the  rough  vices  but  also  the  unthinking  virtues  of 
semi-savage  races.     If  the}'  are  not  civilised  enough 


86  The  People  of  Turkey.  v\.  \. 


not  to  be  cruel,  at  least  civilisation  has  not  yet  taught 
them  its  general  lesson  that  honour  and  chivalry  are 
unpractical  relics   of  Middle-Age   superstition,   quite 
unworthy  of  the  business-like  man  of  to-day,  whose 
eyes    are    steadily   fixed    on   the    main  chance.     The 
Albanian,  too,  can  j)lunder,  but  he  does  it  gun  in  hand 
and  openly  on  the  highway ;  not  behind  a  desk  or  on 
'Change.     His   faults   are  the  faults  of  an  tnitrained 
violent  nature,  they  are  never  mean ;  his  virtues  are 
those  of  forgotten  days,  and  are  not  intended  to  pa}-. 
He  is  more  often  abused  than  praised,  but  it  is  mostly 
for  want  of  knowledge ;  for  his  faults  are  on  the  surface, 
whilst  his  sterling  good  qualities  are  seen  only  by  those 
who  know  him  well,  and  know  how  to  treat  him. 
.  The  ties  that  bind  this  nation  to  its  rulers  have 
never  been  those  of  strict  submission,  or  of  sym^jathy. 
The    Turkish    government    cannot    easily   forget   the 
troubles   and   loss   of   life   the   conquest   of  Albania 
occasioned,  nor  can  it  feel  satisfied  Avith  the  manner 
in  which  imperial  decrees  are  received  by  the  more 
turbulent  portion  of  the  inhabitants  with  regard  to  the 
enrolment  of  troops  and  the  payment  of  taxes  ;  nor 
pass  over  the  insolence  and  even  danger  to  which  its 
officials  are  often  exposed. 

The  Mohammedan  Albanians  on  their  side  deeply 
resent  the  loss  of  their  libert}',  and  the  forfeiture  of 
their  privileges,  and  reciprocate  to  the  full  the  ill- 
feeling  and  abusive  language  of  the  Turks.     The  Tm-k 


CH.  III.  AlbaniaJis  and  Turks.  87 


calls  the  Albanian  Haidout  Arnamit!  or  Tellak !  * 
The  Albanian  regards  the  Turk  as  a  doubtful  friend, 
and  a  corrupt  and  impotent  master  ;  and  if  this  an- 
tipath}'^  exists  between  the  Turks  and  the  Albanian 
Moslem,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  it  is 
felt  far  more  strongly  between  the  Turks  and  the 
Albanian  Christians  of  Epirus  and  the  Mirdites, 
who,  feeling  doubly  injured  b}'^  the  oppressive  rule  to 
which  they  are  forced  to  submit,  and  the  loss  of  their 
freedom,  ill-brook  the  authority  of  the  Porte.  The 
Mii'dite  turns  his  looks  and  aspirations  towards  the 
Slavs,  Avhile  the  Albanian  hopes  finally  to  share  the 
liberty  of  the  Greek. 

The  Porte,  under  these  circumstances,  had  a  difficult 
mission  to  fulfil  in  controlling  this  mixed  multitude, 
and  was  not  unjustified  in  looking  upon  it  with  dis- 
trust and  suspicion.  It  now  seems  probable,  however, 
that  it  may  be  relieved  of  the  weight  of  this  respon- 
sibility. 

*  "  Brigand  Albanian  !  "  "  Bath-boy  !  " 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE    TURKS. 

Turkish  Peasants — Decrease  in  Numbers — Taxation  and  Eecruiting — 
Eolations  with  the  Christians — Appearance — Amusements — 
House  and  Family — Townspeople — Guilds — Moslems  and  Chris- 
tians— The  Turk  as  an  Ai-tisan — Objection  to  Innovations — Life 
in  the  Town — The  Military  Class — Government  Officials — Pashas 
— Grand  Vizirs — Pieceptious — A  Turkish  Lady's  Life — The 
Princes — The  Sultan — Mahmoud — His  Reforms — Abdul-Medjid 
— Abdul- Aziz — Character  and  Fate — Murad — Abdul-Hamid — 
Slavery  in  Turkey. 

The  Turkish  peasants  inhabiting  the  rural  districts 
of  Bulgaria,  Macedonia,  Epirus,  and  Thessal}', 
although  the  best,  most  industrious,  and  useful  of  the 
Sultan's  Mohammedan  subjects,  everywhere  evmce 
signs  of  poverty,  decrease  in  numbers,  and  general 
deterioration.  This  fact  is  evident  even  to  the  mere 
traveller,  from  the  wretchedness  and  povei-ty-stricken 
appearance  of  Turkish  villages,  with  theu"  houses 
mostly  tumbling  to  pieces.  The  inhabitants,  unable 
to  resist  the  drain  upon  them  in  time  of  war  when 
the  youngest  and  most  vigorous  men  are  taken  away 
for  military  service,  often  abandon  their  dwellings 
and  retfre  to  more  populous  villages  or  towns :  the 
property  thus  abandoned  goes  to  ruin,  and  the  fields 
in  the  same  manner  become  waste.     This  evil,  which 


CM.   IV. 


Turkish  Peasants.  89 


has  increased  since  the  more  regular  enforcement 
of  the  conscription,  may  be  traced  to  three  principal 
sources  : — The  first  is  the  unequal  manner  in  which 
the  conscription  laws  are  carried  out  upon  this  sub- 
missive portion  of  the  people ;  the  second  is  the  want 
of  labourers,  the  inevitable  consequence  of  the  recruit- 
ing system,  whereby  the  best  hands  are  drawn  away 
annually  at  the  busiest  and  most  profitable  time  of  the 
year,  to  the  great  and  sometimes  irrepiirable  injury  of 
industry  ;  the  third  is  the  irregular  and  often  unjust 
manner  in  which  the  taxes  are  levied.  Under  these 
unencouraging  circumstances  the  disabled  old  men, 
the  wild  boys,  and  the  women  (who  are  never  trained 
to  work  and  are  consequently  unfit  for  it),  are  left 
behind  to  continue  the  labour  of  the  conscripts,  and 
strusele  on  as  well  as  indolent  habits  and  natural  in- 
capacity  for  hard  work  will  allow  them.  The  large 
villages  will  soon  share  the  fate  of  the  small  ones  and 
be  engulfed  in  the  same  ruin,  unless  radical  changes 
are  introduced  for  the  benefit  of  the  Turkish  peasants. 
Then-  condition  requires  careful  and  continued  atten- 
tion at  the  hands  of  a  good  and  equitable  adminis- 
tration. 
/  The  Turkish  peasant  is  a  good,  quiet,  and  submis- 

sive subject,  who  refuses  neither  to  furnish  his  Sultan 
1      with  troops  nor  to  pay  his  taxes,  so  far  as  in  him  lies ; 
but  he  is  poor,  ignorant,  helpless,  and  improvident  to 
an  almost  incredible  degree.    At  the  time  of  recruiting 


90  The  People  of  Turkey.  vw  i. 

he  will  complain  bitterly'  of  his  hard  lot,  but  go  all  the 
same  to  serve  his  time ;  he  groans  under  the  heavy  load 
of  taxation,  gets  imprisoned,  and  is  not  released  until 
he  manages  to  pay  his  dues. 

He  is  generall}"  discontented  with  his  government,  of 
which  he  openl}'-  complains,  and  still  more  with  its 
agents,  with  whom  he  is  brought  into  closer  contact ; 
but  still  the  idea  of  rebelHng  against  either,  giving  any 
signs  of  disaffection,  or  attempting  to  resist  the  law, 
never  gets  any  hold  upon  him.  His  relations  with  his 
Christian  neighbours  vary  greatly  with  the  locality  and 
the  personal  character  of  both.  In  some  places  Chris- 
tian and  Turkish  peasants,  in  times  of  peace,  live  in 
tolerable  harmony,  in  others  a  continual  warfare  of 
complaints  on  one  side  and  acts  of  oppression  on  the 
other  is  kept  up.  The  only  means  of  securing  peace 
to  both  is  to  separate  the  two  parties,  and  compel  each 
to  rest  solety  upon  its  own  exertions  and  resources,  and 
to  prove  its  worth  in  the  school  of  necessit}^  An 
English  gentleman  owning  a  large  estate  in  Macedonia, 
used  to  assert  that  until  the  Christian  peasant  adopts  a 
diet  of  beer  and  beef  nothing  will  be  made  of  him  ;  in 
the  same  manner  I  thinlc  that  until  the  Turk  is  cured 
of  liis  bad  habit  of  employing  by  hook  or  by  crook 
Petclio  and  Yancho  to  do  his  work  for  him,  he  will  never 
be  able  to  do  it  himself. 

The  Turkish  peasant  is  well-built  and  strong,  and 
possesses    extraordinary   power   of  endurance.      His 


CI  I.  IV.  Peasant  Life.  91 

mode  of  living  is  simple,  his  habits  sober ;  unlike  the 
Christians  of  his  class  he  has  no  dance,  no  village  feast, 
and  no  music  but  a  land  of  drum  or  tambourine,  to 
vary  the  monotony  of  his  life.  His  cup  of  coffee  and 
his  chibouk  contain  for  him  all  the  sweets  of  existence. 
The  coffee  is  taken  before  the  labours  of  the  day  are 
begun,  and  again  in  the  evening  at  the  cafiiie.  His 
work  is  often  interrupted  in  order  to  enjoy  the  chibouk, 
which  he  smokes  crouched  under  a  tree  or  wall.  His 
house  is  clean  but  badl}^  built,  cold  in  winter  and 
hot  in  summer,  ])0ssessing  little  in  the  way  of  furni- 
ture but  bedding,  mats,  rugs,  and  kitchen  utensils. 
He  is  worse  clad  than  the  Christian  peasant,  and  his 
wife  and  children  still  worse ;  yet  the  women  are 
content  with  their  lot,  and  in  their  ignorance  and  help- 
lessness do  not  try,  like  the  Christian  Avomen,  to  better 
their  condition  by  their  individual  exertions  ;  they  are 
irreproachable  and  honest  in  their  conduct,  and  capable 
of  enduring  great  trials.  Some  are  ver}^  pretty  ;  tliej^ 
keep  much  at  home,  the  3'oung  girls  seldom  gather 
together  for  fun  and  enjoyment  except  at  a  wedding  or 
circumcision  ceremony,  when  they  sing  and  plaj^ 
together,  while  the  matrons  gossip  over  their  private 
affairs  and  those  of  their  neighbours.  The  girls  are 
married  young  to  peasants  of  their  own  or  some  neigh- 
bouring village.  Polygamy  is  rare  among  Turkish 
peasants,  and  they  do  not  often  indulge  in  the  luxmy 
of  divorce. 


92  The  People  of  Turkey.  i>t.  i. 

On  the  whole  the  Turkish  peasant,  though  not  a 
model  of  virtue,  is  a  good  sort  of  man,  and  Avould  be 
much  better  if  he  had  not  the  habit  in  times  of  national 
trouble  to  take  upon  him  the  name  of  Bashi-Bazouk, 
and  to  transform  himself  into  a  ruffian. 

Turks,  generally  speaking,  prefer  town  to  country 
life  :  for  in  towns  they  enjoy  more  frequent  oppor- 
tunities of  indulging  in  that  dolcc  far  nicnte  which 
has  become  an  integral  part  of  the  Turkish  character 
and  has  entirely  routed  his  original  nomadic  dis- 
position. 

The    tradespeople   of   the    towns   are   ranged  into 

esnafs,  or  guilds,  and  form  separate  corporations,  some 

of  which  include  Christians  when  they  happen  to  be 

engaged  in  the  same  pursuits.     Thus  there  are  the 

esnafs  of  barbers,  linendrapers,  greengrocers,  grooms, 

etc.     These  bodies,  strange  to  say,  in  the  midst  of 

general    disunion    and  disorganisation,    are    governed 

by  fixed   laws   and  regulations  faithfully  observed  bj^ 

Christians  and  Turks  alike,  and  the  rival  worshippers, 

bound  only  b}'  the  obligation  of  good  faith  and  honour 

towards  each   other,  pull  together  much  better   and 

show  a  greater  regard    for  justice    and    impartiality 

than  is  e\inced  by  any  other  portion  of  the  commu- 

nit}'.      Ever}^  corporation    elects   one    or  two  chiefs, 

who  regulate    all  disx)utes  and   settle  any   difficulties 

that  may  arise  among  the  members.     These  Oustas, 

or    chiefs,    are    master-workmen    in    their    different 


cii.  IV.  Trade-Gtiilds.  93 

trades.  The  apprentices  are  called  Chiraks,  and  ob- 
tain promotion,  according  to  their  abilit}^,  after  a 
certain  number  of  years.  When  considered  suffi- 
ciently advanced  in  their  business,  the  master,  with 
the  consent  and  approval  of  the  corporation,  admits 
them  into  tlie  fraternity,  and  gives  them  the  choice 
of  entering  into  partnership  with  him  or  beginning 
business  on  their  own  account. 

The  grooms  3'early  elect  a  chief  in  each  town 
called  Seis  BasJd,  through  whom,  for  a  small  fee, 
grooms  ma}'  be  obtained  with  greater  security  than 
otherwise  for  their  good  behaviour  and  capability. 
The  meetings,  or  lonjas,  of  this  csnaf,  are  held 
pretty  frequently  in  coftee-houses,  where  the  affairs 
of  the  corporation  are  regulated,  and  the  meeting 
generally  terminates  in  an  orgie ;  after  which  the 
grooms  retire  to  their  stables,  much  the  worse  for 
the  wine  and  reiki  they  have  drunk. 

Once  a  3'ear  each  of  the  associations  gives  a  pic- 
nic, either  on  the  feast  of  the  patron  saint  or  at  the 
promotion  of  an  apprentice.  On  such  occasions  a 
certain  sum  is  collected  from  the  members  or  taken 
from  the  reserve  fund  Avhich  some  of  the  esiiafs 
possess,  for  the  purchase  of  all  kinds  of  provisions 
needed  for  a  substantial  and  sometimes  even  sump- 
tuous meal,  to  which  not  only  all  the  members  of 
the  guild  are  invited,  irrespective  of  creed  and  nation- 
ality, but  also  all  strangers  avIio  may  happen  to  pass 


94  The  People  of  Tiirkcy.  w.  i. 

the  place  wliere  the  feast  is  held.  The  amusements 
include  music  and  dancing  for  the  Christians,  and  a 
variety  of  other  entertainments,  always  liarmless  and 
quite  within  the  hounds  of  decorum,  and  joined  in 
with  the  spirit  of  joviality  that  characterises  these 
gatherings;  disputes  are  of  rare  occurrence  and  the 
greatest  harmony  is  displayed  throughout  the  day 
hetween  Christian  and  Mussulman.  "When  the  in- 
terests of  the  Mohammedans  are  closely  connected 
with  those  of  the  Christians,  hoth  willingly  forega 
something  of  their  usual  intolerance  in  order  to  fur- 
ther the  cause  of  business.  It  is  strange  and  re- 
gretahle  that  this  spirit  of  association  among  the 
lower  orders  should  receive  so  little  encouragement 
from  the  Government  and  the  higher  classes. 

Though  the  Mohammedans  in  certain  locahties  and 
under  such  circumstances  as  those  I  have  mentioned, 
are  just  in  their  dealings  with  the  Christians,  and 
maintain  a  friendly  feeling  towards  them ;  in  others, 
especially  in  inland  towns,  the  growing  j)rosperity  of 
the  Christians  excites  a  hitter  feeling  among  their 
Turkish  neighbours,  who  often  offer  open  hostiUty  and 
inflict  irreparable  injury  on  their  business  and  pro- 
perty. Many  incidents  of  this  nature  have  come  under 
my  notice,  and  lead  me  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
non-progressiveness  of  the  Turks  and  the  rapid 
decline  of  their  empire  is  partly  due  to  the  unfor- 
tunate   and    insurmountable    incongeniality   existing 


CH.  IV.  Moslems  and  Christians.  95 

between  the  Turks  and  Christians.     The  Turks,  as 
the  dominant  race,  assumed  total  ascendanc}'  over  the 
Christians,  got  into  the  habit  of  using  them  as  tools 
who  acted,  worked,  and  thought  for  them  in  an  irre- 
sponsible fashion,  and  thus   lost  the  power  of  doing 
for  themselves,  together  with  the  sense  of  seeing  the 
necessit}^  of  dealing  with  justice,  generosity,  and  im- 
partialit}',  which  alone  could  have  guaranteed  enter- 
prise or  secured  confidence  and  sympatliv  between  the 
two  classes.     Unfortunately  for  the   Turks  this  has 
brought  about  a  state  of  permanent  antipathy  between 
the  two  that  can  never  be  corrected ;  nor  can  any  re- 
conciliation be  arrived  at  unless  these  classes  become 
entirely  independent  of  one   another.     Any  arrange- 
ment short  of  tliis,  as  any  person  well-informed  as  to 
the  actual  relations  of  Turks  and  Christians,  be  they 
Greeks  or  Bulgarians,  will  admit,  must  be   of  short 
duration,  and  before  long  there  could  not  fail  to  come 
a  recurrence  of  outbreaks,  revolutions,  and  the  usual 
atrocities  that  accompany  disorder  among  these  races. 
The   Turks,  generally  speaking,  are  not  active  or 
intelligent  in  business,  and  do  not  venture  much  into 
speculation  or  commercial  transactions  of  an}'  great 
importance.     For  example,  one  never  hears  of  their 
undertaking  banking,   or  forming  companies  for  the 
purpose   of  working  mines,  maldng  railways,  or  any 
other  enterprise  involving  risk  and  requiring  intelli- 
gence, activity,  system,  and  honesty  to  ensure  success. 


y 


96  The  People  of  Turkey.  it.  i. 

The  first  reason  for  this  strange  neglect  in  a  people 
who  possess  one  of   the  finest  and  most  productive 
countries  in  the  world    is    a  naturally  stagnant  and 
lethargic  disposition  ;  another  is  the  want  of  the  sup- 
port of  the  Government,  which  has  never  shown  itself 
earnestl}^   desirous   of    aiding    private   enterj^rise    or 
guaranteeing    its    success   by   affording   disinterested 
protection.     Until  very  recent  times  no  pains  have 
heen  takeii  either  by  individuals  or  by  the  Government 
to    introduce   those   innovations    and   improvements 
'which  the  times   demand.     The  consequence  is  that 
the   Turkish  tradespeople  gradually  find  the  number 
of  their  customers  decrease,  while  the  Greeks,  Franks, 
and  others  successfully  supply  the  public  with  the  new 
articles,  or  the  old  ones  improved  and  better  fashioned. 
To  give  an  instance  of  this  I  will  repeat  an  incident 
related   to   me   by   a    Turkish   bey    of.  *'  La    Jeune 
Turquie  "  as  a  lamentable  proof  of  the  non-progres- 
siveness  of  the  masses.     "  When  at  Stamboul,"  said 
lie,  "  I  had  dming  some  time  to  pass  by  the  shop  of  a 
Turldsh  basketmaker  who,  with  two  of  his  sons,  one 
grown  up  and  the  other  a  boj',  might  be  seen  working 
at   the  wicker  hampers  and  common  baskets  which 
have  been  used  in  the  country  from  time  immemorial, 
l)ut  are  now  less  used  bj'  reason  of  the  superiority  of 
those  brought  from  Europe  or  made  in  the  school  for 
mechanical  arts  in  Stamboul,  an  institution  not  much 
appreciated  by  the  artisans  who  enjoy  the  libert}'  of 


cir.  IV,  Turkish  Artisans.  97 

going  themselves  or  sending  their  chikh^en  to  learn  the 
innovations  in  their  different  branches  of  indiistr}'. 
The  basketraaker  and  his  sons  were  evidently  a  steady- 
going  set,  representing  the  honest  Turks  of  olden 
time,  but  seemed  to  be  struggling  for  a  livelihood. 
Feeling  an  interest  in  them,  I  one  day  stopped  and 
asked  the  old  man  what  he  realized  per  diem  by 
the  sale  of  his  baskets  ?  He  heaved  a  deep  sigh, 
glanced  round  his  dismal  shop,  ornamented  only  with 
dust-covered  baskets,  and  said,  *  Very  little,  from  three 
to  six  piastres  (6rZ.  to  l.s.) ;  for  my  business,  once  a 
thrivmg  one,  is  now  cast  into  the  shade,  and  few 
customers  come  to  buy  the  old  Turkish  baskets.* 
'  Wh}'  then  do  you  not  give  it  up  and  take  to 
something  else  ? ' 

"  *  No,  it  did  very  well  for  my  father,  who  at  his 
death  recommended  me  to  continue  it  and  leave  it  to 
my  sons  and  grandsons,  who  should  also  be  brought 
uj)  to  the  trade.  I  liave  done  so,  but  it  is  a  hard, 
struggle  for  three  of  us  to  live  by  it.' 

"  I  then  suggested  that  one  or  more  of  his  sons 
should  learn  the  new  method  of  basket-making,  which 
would  improve  his  business  at  once.  This  idea  did 
not  seem  to  be  received  favourably  by  the  old  man 
and  the  eldest  son ;  but  the  boy  caught  at  it  and 
asked  if  he  could  go  and  learn.  Encouraged  by  his 
evident  willingness,  I  prevailed  upon  the  father  to 
allow  me  to  place  his  son  in  the  Industrial  School, 

VOL.  I.  H 


\ 


98  TJie  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  i. 

where  I  hear  he  has  made  certain  progress  in  his 
art."  The  Turkish  mechanic  has  no  power  of  in- 
vention, and  his  work  lacks  finish ;  hut  he  is  capahle 
of  imitating  with  some  success  any  design  shown  to 
him. 

The  hfe  led  by  the    Turkish    tradespeople    is    ex- 
tremely monotonous  and  brightened  by  no  intellectual 
pleasures.     The  shopkeeper,  on  leaving  his  house  at 
dawn,  goes  to  the  coffee-house,  takes  his  small  cup  of 
coffee,  smokes  his  pipe,  chats  with  the  Jiahitues  of  the 
place,    and  then  proceeds  to  his   business,  which  is 
carried  on  Avith  Oriental  languor  throughout  the  day. 
At  sunset  he  again  resorts  to  the  coffee-house  to  take 
the    same   refreshment   and  enjo}'^  the  innovation  of 
having  a  newspaper  read  to  him — a  novelty  now  much 
appreciated  by  the  lower  classes.     He  then  returns  to 
the  bosom  of  his  family  in  time  for  the  evening  meal. 
His  home  is  clean  though  very  simple  ;  his  wife  and 
daughters   are  ignorant  and  never  taught  a  trade  by 
which  they  might  earn  anything.     Embroider}^,  indis- 
pensable in  a  number  of  useless  articles  that  serve  to 
figm^e  in  the    trousseau  of  every    Turkish    girl,    and 
latterly  coarse  needle  and  crochet-work,  fill  up  part  of 
the  time,  while  the  mothers  attend  to  their  household 
affairs.  The  young  children  are  sent  to  the  elementary 
school,  and  the  boys  either  go  to   school  or  are  ap- 
prenticed to  some  trade. 

A  considerable  proportion  of  the  Turks  belong  to 


cii.  IV.  TiLrkish  Officers.  99 

the  army.  The  officers,  however,  unUke  those  of 
their  class  in  Europe,  do  not  enjoy  the  prestige  or 
rank  to  which  the  merits  of  the  profession  entitle 
them.  It  follows  that  the  individuality  of  the  officer 
is  not  taken  into  account :  if  he  possesses  any  special 
ability  it  is  overlooked  so  long  as  superiority  of  rank 
does  not  enforce  it  and  obtain  for  him  proper  respect 
from  soldiers  and  civilians.  A  Turkish  captain  does 
not  receive  much  more  consideration  from  his  senior 
officer  than  does  a  common  private ;  and  in  a  moment 
of  anger  his  colonel  or  general  may  strike  and  use  foul 
and  abusive  language  to  him  :  a  major  is  barely  secure 
from  such  treatment.  There  are  certainly  men  of 
merit  and  education  among  the  officers  of  the  Turkish 
army,  whose  behaviour,  like  that  of  the  soldiers,  is 
much  praised  by  those  who  have  had  the  opportunity 
of  seeing  the  admirable  manner  in  which  they  con- 
ducted themselves  in  the  late  war.  Unfortunately  it 
is  principally  in  individual  cases  that  this  can  be  ad- 
mitted, and  it  can  by  no  means  apply  to  the  whole 
body  of  officers.  \    .^ 

When  not  in  active  service  Turkish  officers  gene-  \ 
rally  have  their  wives  and  families  in  the  towns  in 
which  they  are  stationed.  The  pay  of  an  officer  under 
the  rank  of  a  general  is  very  inadequate  and  is  irre- 
gularly received — a  fact  sadly  evident  in  their  neglected 
and  disordered  appearance.  With  boots  down  at  heel 
and  coats  minus  half  the  buttons,  they  may  often  be 

H    2 


TOO  J  he  People  of  TiirJzey.  vx.  t. 

seen  purchasing  their  own  food  in  the  market  and 
carrying  it  home  in  their  hands. 

The  5"oung  officers  who  have  pursued  their  studies 
in  the  military  schools  present  a  marked  contrast  to 
these.  They  are  well  dressed  and  have  an  air  of 
smartness,  and  in  military  science  tliev  are  said  to  be 
far  more  advanced  than  those  who  have  preceded 
them.  The  training  they  receive,  however,  is  by  no 
means  a  perfect  one,  and  much  will  be  needed  before 
the  Turkish  officer  can  rise  to  a  level  with  the 
European. 

Their  wives  are  women  from  the  towns ;  as  they 
generally  follow  their  husbands  to  the  different  sta- 
tions allotted  to  them,  they  obtain  some  knowledge 
of  the  world  by  travelling  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  and  are  conversable  and  pleasant  to  associate 
with. 

The  sons  of  all  good  and  wealthy  families  in  the 
/capital  are  either  placed  in  the  military  schools, 
or  sent  to  the  Kalem  (Chancellerie  d'Etat),  where 
the  majority'  of  the  upper  class  Turkish  youth  are 
initiated  into  official  routine  and  receive  different 
grades  as  they  proceed,  the  highest  rank  accorded 
corresponding  with  that  of  Serik  (general  of  division). 
The  officials  who  pass  through  this  school  are  generally 
more  polished  in  manner,  more  liberal  in  their  ideas, 
and  superior  in  many  respects  to  the  mean  creatm^es 
who  in  former  times  were  entrusted  with  offices  for 


en.  IV.  Official  Classes.  loi 

Avliicli  they  were  quite  unfit.  Tliis  practice  of  ap- 
pointing Cliihoukjis  (pipe-bearers)  and  other  persons  of 
low  origin  as  Miidirs  (governors  of  large  villages)  and 
Kaimakams  (governors  of  districts),  is  now  less  in 
force,  and  is  limited  to  Governors-general,  who  some- 
times send  theii"  servants  to  occui^y  these  positions. 
A  Mudir  ma}"  become  a  Kaimakam,  and  a  Kaimakam 
a  Pasha,  but  the  top  ranks  can  be  obtained  without 
passmg  through  the  lower  grades.  The  inferior 
official  placed  over  each  village  is  the  Muklitar.  He 
may  be  Christian  or  Moslem,  according  to  the  popula- 
tion ;  in  mixed  villages  two  are  generally  cliosen  to 
represent  the  respective  creeds.  These  functionaries 
are  entrusted  with  the  administration  of  the  village  ; 
they  collect  the  taxes,  and  adjust  the  difterences  that 
arise  among  the  peasants.  They  are  too  insignificant 
to  do  much  good  or  much  harm,  unless  they  are  very 
vicious.  The  Mudii-s  are  at  the  liead  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  their  villages  and  of  the  medjUss 
or  council,  in  which  membei's  chosen  by  the  people 
take  part.  Mutessarifs  are  sub-governors  of  Kazas 
or  large  districts,  and  Valis,  Governors-general  of 
vilayets. 

All  this  body  of  officials,  togetlier  with  the  Defter- 
dars  (treasurers),  Mektehjis  (secretaries  of  the 
Pashalik),  politico  memours  (political  agents),  etc., 
taken  as  a  whole,  are  seldom  fitted  for  their  posts  :  they 
are  ignorant  and  unscrupulous  and  much  more  bent 


102  The  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  i. 

upon  securing  their  personal  interests  than  the  welfare 
of  their  country. 

It  must,  however,  in  justice  be  said  that,  owing  to 
the  large  sums  the  higher  officials  have  to  disburse 
in  order  to  obtain  their  appointments,  the  great  ex- 
pense entailed  in  frequently  moving  themselves  and 
their  families  from  one  extremity  of  the  empire  to  the 
other,  and  the  irregular  and  meagre  pay  the  minor 
officials  receive,  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  live  with- 
out resorting  to  some  ilUcit  means  of  increasing  their 
incomes.  And  it  must  be  admitted  that  praiseworthy 
exceptions  are  to  be  fomid  here  and  there  among  both 
the  higher  and  the  lower  officials. 

The  case  is  very  simple.  A  man  has  to  pay  a  vast 
sum  of  monej'^  to  various  influential  people  in  order  to 
get  a  certain  post.  His  pay  is  nothing  much  to  speak 
of.  He  is  liable  to  be  ejected  by  some  one's  caprice 
at  any  moment.  If  he  is  to  repay  his  "  election  ex- 
penses "  and  collect  a  small  reserve  fund,  he  must 
give  up  all  idea  of  honesty.  An  honest  official  in 
Turkey  means  a  bankrupt.  Under  the  sj^stem  of 
favouritism  and  bribery  no  course  but  that  of  corrup- 
tion and  extortion  is  open  to  the  official.  II  faut  hien 
vivre :  and  so  long  as  the  old  system  exists  one  must 
do  in  Turkey  as  the  rest  of  the  Turks  do.  It  is 
utterly  corrupt :  but  it  must  be  reformed  from  the  top 
downwards. 

People  in  the  east  never  think  of  asking  what  was 


CH.   IV, 


Pashas.  103 


the  origin  of  pashas  or  in  what  manner  they  have 
attained  their  high  station.  Genealogical  trees  in 
Turkey  are  not  cultivated ;  most  of  the  old  stems  (as 
explained  in  Part  II.,  Chap.  I.)  were  uprooted  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century ;  their  branches, 
lopped  off  and  scattered  in  all  directions,  have  in  some 
instances  taken  fresh  root  and  started  into  a  new- 
existence  ;  but  they  no  longer  represent  the  strength 
of  the  ancient  trunk.  The  important  body  of  beys, 
pashas,  etc.,  thus  abolished,  had  to  be  replaced  by  a 
new  body  selected  without  much  scrutiny  from  the 
crowd  of  adventurers  who  were  always  awaiting  some 
turn  of  fortune  whereby  they  might  be  put  into  some 
official  position  and  mend  their  finances. 

Yusbashi  A.,  one  of  the  chief  leaders  of  the  Bashi- 
Bazouks,  who  performed  the  work  of  destruction 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Bulgarian  troubles,  was 
subsequently  sent  to  Constantinople  by  the  military 
authorities  to  be  hung ;  but  being  reprieved  and 
pardoned,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank    of   Pasha. 

He  had  come,  when  a  boy,  to  the  town  of  T as  an 

apprentice  in  a  miserable  barber's  shop ;  later  on  he 
left  his  master  and  entered  the  service  of  a  native  bej-. 
During  the  Crimean  war  he  joined  the  Bashi-Bazouks, 
and  when  peace  was  made  returned  to  the  town  with 
the  rank  of  captain  and  a  certain  amount  of  money, 
which  he  invested  in  land.  By  extortion  and  op- 
pression of  every  kind  exercised  upon  his  peasants, 


I04  The  People  of  1  urkey.  it.  i. 


lie  soon  became  a  person  of  consequence  in  the  town. 
Later  on  this  man  found  his  Avay  to  the  Konak,  was 
appointed  member  of  the  council,  and  was  j^laced  ui)on 
some  commission  by  which  he  was  enabled,  through  a 
series  of  illegal  proceedings,  to  double  and  triple  his 
fortune  at  the  expense  of  the  Government  revenues. 
The  misdeeds  of  this  man  and  some  of  his  associates 
becoming  too  flagrant  to  be  longer  overlooked,  the 
Porte  sent  a  commission  to  examine  the  Government 
dcftcrs  or  accounts.  The  captain,  by  no  means 
frightened,  but  determined  to  avoid  further  trouble  in 
the  matter,  is  said  to  have  set  fire  to  the  Konak  in 
several  places,  so  that  all  the  documents  that  would 
have  compromised  him  were  destroyed  and  the  Pasha 
and  commission  who  came  to  inspect  his  doings  barely 
escaped  with  their  lives.  Knowing  the  desperate 
character  of  the  man  they  had  to  deal  wdth,  they  were 
alarmed,  and  unfeignedly  glad  to  get  away  and  hush 
the  matter  up. 

Thus  the  illustrious  line  of  Pashas  and  Grand 
Vizirs,  like  the  Kiprilis,  was  i)ut  aside  and  replaced 
by  a  long  list  of  nonentities  who,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  such  as  Ali  and  Fuad  Pashas,  cannot  be  said  to 
have  benefited  their  country  in  any  remarkable  degree, 
or  to  have  shown  any  special  qualifications  as  statesmen. 

The  title  of  Grand  Vizir,  now  nominally  abolished, 
was  one  of  the  oldest  and  the  highest  given  to  a  civil 
functionary.     His  ai^pointment,  being  of  a  temjioral 


cir.  IV.  Gi'mid  Vizi7's.  lo 


0 


nature,  depended  entirely  upon  the  will  of  the  Sultan, 
who  might  at  his  pleasure  load  the  Vizir  with  honours, 
or  relieve  him  of  his  head.  This  unpleasant 
uncertainty  as  to  the  futm'e  attached  to  the  Vizir's 
office  gradually  almost  disappeared  as  the  Sultans 
began  to  recognise  the  indispensible  services  rendered 
to  them  by  an  able  Grand  Vizir.  They  began 
to  appreciate  the  comfort  of  having  ministers  to 
think  for  them,  make  laws,  and  scheme  reforms  in 
their  name  :  and  this  confidence,  so  agreeable  to 
an  indolent  Sultan,  and  so  convenient  to  an  irre- 
sponsible minister,  was  the  ruling  principle  of  the 
constitution  during  the  reign  of  Sultan  Abdul- 
Medjid,  who  was  affable  to  his  ministers,  changed  them 
less  frequently  than  his  ancestors  did,  and  loaded 
them  indiscriminately  with  decorations  and  gifts.  Not 
so  his  wayward  and  capricious  brother  and  successor 
Abdul-Aziz,  who  scrupled  not,  on  the  slightest  pretext, 
to  dismiss  his  Grand  Vizir.  A  trifling  change  in  his 
personal  ajipearance,  a  divergence  of  opinion,  timidly 
expressed  by  the  humble  mmister — who  stood  with 
hands  crossed,  dervish-fashion,  on  his  shoulders,  in 
the  attitude  of  an  obedient  slave — just  as  much  as  a 
more  serious  fault,  such  as  casting  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  his  Imperial  Majesty  with  regard  to  his  ex- 
orbitant demands  on  the  treasury,  were  sufficient  to 
seal  the  fate  of  the  daring  Sadrazam.  But  in  sjnte  of 
the  difficulties  and  drawbacks  and  humiliations  of  the 


io6  llic  People  of  TiU'key.  w.  i. 

post,  a  Grand  Yizir  continued  to  be,  after  the  Sultan, 
the  most  influential  person  in  the  country.     The  gates 
of  his  Konak  Avere  at  once  thrown  open,  and  the  other 
ministers  and  functionaries  flocked  to  pay  their  respects 
to  him.     The  governors  of  districts  telegi'aphed  their 
felicitations,  while  the  antechamber  and  courts  of  his 
house  and  office  were  rarely  free  from  the  presence  of  a 
regular  army  of  office-hunters,  petitioners,  dervishes, 
old  women,  and  beggars,  waiting  for  an  audience  or  a 
chance  glimpse  of  the  minister  on  his  exit,  when  each 
individual  pressed  forward  to  bring  his  or  her  claim 
to    Ids   notice.      Pek   aye,  hahdum  olour,*  were    the 
words  that  generally  dropj)ed  from  the  mouths  even  of 
the  least  amiable  Vizirs  on  such  occasions — words  of 
hope   that   were    eagerly    caught    by   the    interested 
parties,  as  well  as  by  the  numerous  cortege  of  kyatibs, 
servants,  and  favourites  of  the  great  man  who,  accord- 
ing to  the  importance  of  the  affairs  or  the  station  of  the 
applicant,  willingly  undertook  to   be  the   advocate  of 
the   cause,  guaranteeing  its   success  by  the  counter- 
guarantee  of  receiving  the  rushvets  or  bribes  needed  in 
all  stages  of  the  affair.     This  method  of  transacting 
business,  very  general  in  Turkey,  is  called  hatir,  or 
by  favour  ;  its  extent  is  unlimited,  and  its  application 
varied  and    undefined;    it    can   pardon  the   crime   of 
mm-der,  imprison  an  innocent  person,  liberate  a  con- 
demned   criminal,    take    away   the    property    of    one 
*  "  Very  well,  we  shall  see,  it  may  be  done." 


CH.   IV. 


Bribciy.  107 


minister  to  present  it  to  another,  remove  governors  from 
their  posts  just  as  you  change  phices  in  a  quadrille,  or 
simply  turn  out  one  set,  as  in  the  cotillon,  to  make 
room  for  another.  Anytliing  and  everything  can  in 
fact  be  brought  about  b}'  this  system,  except  a  divorce 
when  the  plea  is  not  brought  by  the  husband. 

I  have  particularised  the  Grand  Vizir  as  doing 
business  in  this  way  merely  because  it  was  he  who 
was  more  appealed  to  in  this  manner  than  the  other 
ministers,  not  because  the  others  do  not  follow  closely 
in  his  steps.  Their  duties  are  extensive  and  im- 
portant, and  demand  for  their  projjer  and  exact  per- 
formance not  only  intelligence,  but  also  high  educa- 
tional qualifications,  which,  Avith  rare  exceptions, 
Turkish  officials  do  not  possess — a  capital  defect,  which, 
added  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  period  they  are  likely 
to  remain  in  office,  and  the  systematic  practice,  pursued 
by  each  successive  minister,  of  trying  to  undo  what 
his  predecessor  had  done  for  the  country,  and  of 
dismissing  most  of  the  civil  officials  and  provincial 
governors  to  replace  them  by  some  from  his  own  set, 
greatly  contributes  to  increase  mal-administration,  and 
to  create  the  disorder  that  has  long  j)revailed  in 
Turkey. 

About  honesty  I  need  not  speak,  for  no  business 
of  any  kind  is  undertaken  without  bribery ;  even  if 
the  minister  should  be  above  this,  there  are  plenty 
of    people    surrounding    him   who    would    not    be    so 


io8  The  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  i. 

scrupulous.  Kibrizli  Meliemet  Pasha  was  one  of  the 
few  high  officials  against  whom  no  charge  of  the 
kind  could  be  brought,  but  his  Kavass-Bashi  condes- 
cended to  take  even  so  small  a  sum  as  five  piastres  as 
a  bribe.  This  Pasha  was  a  thorough  gentleman,  high- 
minded  both  in  his  administrative  affairs  and  family 
life.  After  he  lost  his  position  as  Grand  Vizir,  I 
had  occasion  to  see  a  great  deal  of  him  ;  he  took  the 
reverses  of  fortune  with  great  calmness  and  sang-froid  : 
so  do  all  Turks  meet  "  the  slings  and  arrows  of  out- 
rageous fortune." 

The  fall  of  a  Minister  was  generally  rumoured  some 
time  before  it  took  place,  during  which  period  he  and 
those  around  him  tried  to  make  the  most  of  the  op- 
portunities left  to  them,  while  the  opposition  continued 
their  intrigues  until  the  blow  finally  fell.  When  this 
happened  the  Saclrazam  remamed  at  home,  the  gates 
of  his  Konak  were  closed,  and  the  world,  including 
his  best  friends,  would  pass  without  venturing  to  enter ; 
the  only  visitors  would  be  his  banker,  doctor,  and 
creditors,  who  in  prosj)erity  and  adversity  never 
neglect  this  dut}'. 

During  the  administration  of  a  Grand  Vizir,  his 
harem  was  also  called  upon  to  play  its  part  and  take 
the  lead  in  the  female  society  of  Stamboul.  The 
salon  of  the  chief  wife,  like  that  of  her  husband,  would 
be  thrown  open,  and  crowds  of  visitors,  including  the 
wives  of  the  other  ministers,  would  arrive  to  offer  their 


CH.  IV.  An  Official  At-Homc.  109 

respects  and  felicitations,  and  demand  favours  and  pro- 
motions for  their  sons,  or  posts  for  their  husbands. 
All  these  visitors,  on  their  arrival,  were  ushered   into 
the  antechamber  according  to  their  respective  stations, 
where  they  took  off  their  feridjes  and  refreshed  them- 
selves with  sweets,  coffee,  sherbets,  etc.     The  interval 
between  this  and  their  reception,  sometimes  of  several 
hours'  duration,  was  spent  in  conversation  among  the 
visitors,  in  which  some  of  the  ladies  of  the  liousehokl, 
or  some  visitors  staying  in  the  house,  would  join,  until 
they  were  requested  to  proceed  to  the  drawing-room. 
When  the  hostess   appeared  all  would  rise  from  their 
seats,  walk  towards  the  door,  make  temenlas  and  deep 
obeisances,  and  endeavour  to  kiss  her  foot  or  the  hem  of 
her  garment,  an  act  of  homage  which  she  would  accept, 
but  gracefully  and  with  much  dignity  try  to   prevent 
in  those  of  high  rank  by  saying  Istafourla  (excuse  me — 
don't  do  it).     The  conversation,  started  afresh,  would 
depend  for  subjects  upon  the  disposition  and  tact  of  the 
mistress  of  the  house  ;  but  would  chiefly  consist  in 
flattery  and  adulation,  carried  sometimes  to  a  ridiculous 
extent.     The  manner  of  the  hanoum  effendi  would  be 
smooth  and  friendly  towards  the  partizans  of  her  husband, 
curt  towards  those  of  the   opposition,  but  patronising 
and  protecting  in  its  general  tone  towards  all.     Should 
the  Vizir's  lady  be  of  the  unprincipled  tj-pe,  tlie  con- 
versation would  bear  a  different  cachet.     I  was  told  by 
j-;ome  distinguished  Turkish  ladies  that  when  the}'  paid 


1 1  o  The  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  i. 

a  visit  to  the  wife  of  a  short-lived  Vizir,  the  lady, 
both  old  and  ugly,  entertained  them  with  a  recital  of 
the  follies  and  weaknesses  of  her  husband  and  ex- 
posed some  of  her  own  not  more  select  proceedings 
into  the  bargain. 

The  wife  of  a  Grand  Vizir  also  played  a  great  part 
with  regard  to  the  changes,  appointments,  and  dis- 
missions which  followed  each  new  Vizirate,  by  the 
influence  she  exercised  both  over  him  and  also  in  high 
quarters,  where  she  often  found  means  to  make  herself 
as  influential  as  at  home. 

I  have  often  been  asked  what  a  Turkish  lady  does 
all  day  long  ?  Does  she  sleep  or  eat  sugar-plums,  and 
is  she  kept  under  lock  and  ke}^  by  a  Blue-Beard  of  a 
husband,  who  allows  her  only  the  liberty  of  waiting 
upon  him  ?  A  Turkish  lady  is  certainly  shut  up  in  a 
harem,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  she  is  at  liberty 
to  indulge  in  the  above-mentioned  luxuries  should  she 
feel  so  disposed ;  she  has  possibly,  at  times,  to  sub- 
mit to  being  locked  up,  but  the  key  is  applied  to  the 
outer  gates,  and  is  left  in  the  keeping  of  the  friendly 
eunuch.  Besides,  woman  is  said  to  have  a  will  of  her 
own,  and  "  where  there  is  a  will  there  is  a  way  "  is 
a  proverb  to  which  Turkish  ladies  are  no  strangers. 
I  have  seldom  met  with  one  who  did  not  make  use  of 
her  liberty ;  in  one  sense  she  may  not  have  so  much 
freedom  as  Englishwomen  have,  but  in  many  others 
she   possesses   more.      In   her  home   she   is   perfect 


cii.  IV.  Tiu^kish  Home-Life.  iii 

mistress  of  her  time  and  of  lier  property,  which  she 
can  dispose  of  as  she  tliinks  proper.  Shoukl  she  have 
cause  of  comphiint  against  any  one,  she  is  allowed 
to  be  very  open  spoken,  holds  her  ground,  and 
fights  her  own  battles  with  astonishing  coolness  and 
decision. 

Turkish   ladies   appreciate  to   the  full  as  much  as 
their    husbands     the    virtues    of    the    indispensable 
cup  of  coffee  and   cigarette  ;  this  is  their  first  item 
in   the   day's    programme.      The    lianoiims    may  next 
take    a    bath,    the  young   ladies   wash    at    the    ahtest 
hours :    the    slaves  when   they   can    find   time.     The 
Jianoum  will  then  attend  to  her  husband's  wants,  brine 
him   his   pipe    and    coffee,   his    slippers  and   pelisse. 
"While  smoking  he  will  sit  on  the  sofa,  whilst  his  wife 
occupies  a  lower  position  near  him,  and  the  slaves  roll 
up  the  bedding  from  the  floor.     If  the  gentleman  be 
a   government    functionary   the    official    bag   will    be 
brought   in,   and    he  will   look    over   his    documents, 
examining  some,  affixing  his  seal  to  others,  saying  a 
few  words  in   the    mtervals  to  his  wife,   who  always 
addresses  him  in   a  ceremonious  manner  with  great 
deference  and  respect.     The  children  will  then  trot  in 
in  their  ;iedjliks  with  the  hair  uncombed,  to  be  caressed, 
and  ask   for   money  with  which   to    buy  sweets  and 
cakes.     The  custom  of  giving  pence  to  children  daily 
is  so  prevalent  that  it  is  practised  even  by  the  poor. 
The  children,  after  an  irregular  breakfast,  are  sent 


I  I  2  The  People  of  T^irkey.  vw  i. 


to  school  or  allowed  to  roam  about  the  house ;  the 
i'ffendi  proceeds  to  perform  his  out-of-door  toilet  and 
leaves  the  haremlik,  when  the  female  portion  of  the 
establishment,  freed  from  the  pleasure  or  obligation  of 
attending  to  his  wants,  begin  the  day's  occupation.  If 
this  should  include  any  special  or  unusual  household 
work,  such  as  preserve-making,  washing  or  ironing,  or 
general  house-cleaning,  the  lad}'^,  be  she  of  the  highest 
position,  will  take  part  in  it  with  the  slaves.  This  is 
certainly  not  necessar}'-,  for  she  has  plenty  of  menials,, 
hut  is  done  in  order  to  fill  up  the  day,  man}^  hours 
of  which  necessarily  hang  heavily  on  her  hands  when 
not  enlivened  by  visiting  or  being  visited.  In  the 
capital,  however,  less  of  this  kind  of  employment  is 
indulged  in  by  the  fashionable  hanoums,  who  are 
trying  to  create  a  taste  for  European  occupations  by 
learning  music,  foreign  languages,  and  fine  needle- 
work. The  time  for  dressing  is  irregular.  A  lady  may 
think  proper  to  do  her  hair  and  make  herself  tidy 
for  luncheon,  or  she  may  remain  in  her  gedjlik  and 
slippers  all  da}'.  This  fashion  of  receiving  visitors  en 
neglige  is  not  considered  at  all  peculiar  unless  the  visit 
has  been  announced  beforehand. 

Visiting  and  promenading,  the  principal  amuse- 
ments of  Turkish  ladies,  are  both  affairs  of  very 
great  importance.  Permission  has  previously  to 
be  asked  from  the  husband,  who,  if  liberally  dis- 
posed, freely  grants  it ;  but  if  jealous  and  strict,  he 


CK.  IV.  Ladies    Anuisements.  113 


will  disapprove  of  seeing  liis  family  often  out  of  doors. 
When  a  walk  or  drive  is  projected  the  children  all 
begin  to  clamour  to  go  with  their  mother.  Scarcely 
is  this  question  settled  by  coaxing  or  giving  them 
money,  than  another  arises  as  to  which  of  the  slaves 
are  to  be  allowed  to  go.  Tears,  praj^ers,  and  even 
little  quarrels  and  disturbances  follow,  until  the 
mistress  finall}'  selects  her  party.  The  details  of  the 
toilette  are  very  numerous ;  the  face  has  to  be 
blanched,  then  rouged,  the  e3"ebrows  and  lashes  to  be 
blackened  with  snrme,  and  a  variety  of  other  little 
coquetries  resorted  to  requiring  time  and  patience 
before  the  final  adjustment  of  the  yashmak  and 
feridge. 

Then  comes  the  scramble  for  places  in  the  carriage, 
the  Jianonms  naturally  seat  themselves  first,  the  rest 
squeeze  themselves  in,  and  sit  upon  each  other's 
knees.  It  is  wonderful  to  see  how  well  they  manage 
this  close  packing,  and  how  long  they  can  endure  the 
uncomfortable  postures  in  which  they  are  fixed. 

If  the  excursion  is  solely  for  visiting,  the  occupants 
of  the  carriages  make  the  best  of  the  time  and  libert}' 
by  coquetting  with  the  grooms  and  agas  in  attendance, 
should  these  be  young  and  handsome,  and  sending 
salaams  to  the  passers  by,  mingled  with  laughter  and 
frolic.  But  when  the  excursion  has  a  jncnic  in  prospec- 
tive, or  a  long  drive  into  the  country,  the  gaiety  and 
fun  indulged  in  is  bewildering  ;  and  the  hanoums  can 

VOL.  I.  I 


1 1 4  The  People  of   Turkey.  w.  i, 

only  be  compared  to  a  flock  of  strange  birds  suddenly 
let  loose  from  their  cages,  not  knowing  what  to 
make  of  their  new  freedom.  Flirting,  smoking,  eating 
fruits  and  sweets,  walking  about,  running,  or  loung- 
ing on  the  carpets  they  bring  with  them,  varied  by 
music  and  singing,  fill  the  day.  They  usually  set 
out  early  and  return  before  sunset  in  time  to  receive 
their  master  on  his  visit  to  the  harem  before  dinner. 
When  this  meal  is  over,  the  compan}^,  comfortably 
dressed  in  their  neglige  costume,  indulge  in  coffee  and 
cigarettes,  and  the  events  of  the  day  are  discussed. 
The  ladies  then  retire  to  rest  at  an  early  hour, 
and  rise  the  next  day  to  go  through  the  same 
routine. 

At  the  foot  of  the  imperial  throne  we  see  the 
princes,  who,  like  children  at  dessert,  are  to  be  seen, 
not  heard.  They  now  enjoy  a  degree  of  freedom 
before  unknown,  and  their  wants  and  caprices  are  to  a 
certain  extent  satisfied  by  allowances  from  the  Sultan. 
In  childhood  and  youth  the}^  are  masters  of  their  own 
time,  and  employ  it  as  they  please.  On  emerging 
from  boyhood  they  are  furnished  with  harems ;  some 
more  distantly  related  to  the  reigning  Sultan  are 
allowed  to  have  children ;  but  the  others  are  denied 
that  privilege.  All  these  members  of  the  imperial 
family  live  a  very  secluded  life.  They  are  not  allowed 
to  take  any  part  in  the  administrative,  hold  commis- 
sions in  the  army  or  navy,  or  enter  the  civil  service. 


CH.   IV, 


Princes.  1 1 


The  onl}''  exception  to  this  rule  was  the  son  of  the 
late  Sultan  Ahdul-Aziz,  who,  at  the  age  of  ten,  was,  I 
believe,  a  captain  in  the  army,  and  a  few  years  later 
was  made  a  general.  This  is  said  to  have  given  the 
occasion  for  a  reproach  made  to  the  prince  hy  his 
father,  who  at  the  moment  of  his  deposition  turned  to 
him  and  said,  "  My  son,  I  placed  you  in  the  military 
school  where  you  remained  three  j'^ears  without  making 
a  single  friend ;  see  what  this  has  now  led  to  !  " 

This  reproach  of  being  friendless  addressed  to  any 
of  the  princes  is  unjust,  as  they  are  not  allowed  to 
make  friendships.     Friends  for  a  prince  mean  a  party, 
and  a  party  means  cabals  and  conspiracies,  so  all  such 
dangerous  connections  are  carefully  suppressed,   and 
the  prince,  under  the  influence   of  the  suspicion  and 
espionage  by  which  he  is  surrounded,  is  as  little  dis- 
l^osed  to  have  any  friends  among  the  influential  classes 
and  men  of  rank  as  they  are  to  court  his  friendship  or 
approach  him  too  closely.     A  personal  friend  of  the 
ex- Sultan  Murad  told  me  that   in  early  youth   that 
prince  and  he  had  been  very  much  thrown  together, 
and  a  sincere  afl"ection  had  sprung  up  between  them, 
which,  however,  on  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid's  death,  had 
to  be  entirely  given  up.     Rare  meetmgs  between  them 
€ould  only  be  arranged  when  the  prince  went  to  Pera 
on  shopping  expeditions.     Thus  the  Ottoman  princes, 
spoilt  in  childhood,  secluded  from  active  public  life, 
are  left  to  vegetate  in  their  respective  homes. 

I  2 


1 1 6  The  People  of   Tiirkey.  w.  i. 

The  Princes  of  the  Blood  and  all  relations  of  the 
late  Sultan  used  always  to  be  cleared  out  of  the  way 
on  the  accession  of  a  new  Padishah ;  but  the  custom 
has  fallen  into  disuse  since  the  time  of  Mahmoud  II., 
who  found  it  necessar}'  to  order  the  strangulation 
of  the  deposed  Sultan,  the  drowning  in  sacks  of  174 
of  his  wives  and  odalisks,  and  also  the  decapitation  of  a 
great  number  of  other  persons.  This  measure,  con- 
sidered needful  to  ensure  the  inviolabihty  of  his  person, 
as  the  only  remaining  representative  of  the  house  of 
Othman,  soon  put  an  end  to  the  rebellion  that  had 
occasioned  his  ascension  to  the  throne.  On  the  day 
of  his  proclamation  as  Sultan,  thirty-three  heads  were 
exposed  at  the  gate  of  the  Seraglio  to  bear  evidence 
to  the  fact.  Rebellion,  fire,  and  murder,  it  was  said, 
could  not  be  otherwise  put  down  than  by  counter- 
violence,  and  the  extreme  measures  adopted  by  the 
new  sovereign  ended  in  the  restoration  of  order  in  the 

capital. 

Notwithstanding  this  black  page  in  the  history  of 
Mahmoud,  this  Sultan,  to  whom  history  has  not  yet 
done  justice,  was  one  of  the  best,  most  enlightened, 
and  powerful  of  Ottoman  sovereigns. 

Unlike  most  of  his  predecessors,  he  had  not  wasted 
the  long  years  of  captivity  in  idleness  and  frivolous 
occupations,  but  had  seriously  employed  them  in 
study.  He  originated  the  material  changes  that  have 
since   been  made  in  the  life  of  seraglio  inmates,  and 


CH.  IV.  Abctul-MccLjia  1 1  7 

also  endeavoured  to  better  the  condition  of  his 
Christian  subjects.  Whatever  progress  has  been 
made  by  the  Turkish  Mohammedans  in  the  road  of 
civilisation  must  also  be  attributed  to  his  efforts. 
Amid  wars  without  and  revolts  within,  the  discon- 
tent of  the  Moslems  at  the  attempted  innovations, 
the  clamourmg  of  the  Christians  for  the  amelioration 
of  their  condition,  the  Sultan  struggled  on  for  thirty 
years  with  a  perseverance  worthy  of  the  cause,  till 
death  put  an  end  to  his  work.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  the  liberal  but  weak-minded  Abdul-Medjid. 

The  young  Sultan  was  well  imbued  with  the  ideas 
of  his  father,  but  less  capable  of  carrying  them  out : 
yet  he  showed  liimself  liberal  and  sincerely  desirous 
of  improving  the  degraded  condition  into  which  the 
country  had  fallen. 

The  security  of  life  and  property  became  greater 
under  his  rule.  Executions  and  confiscation  of  pro- 
perty became  less  frequent,  and  a  general  change  for 
the  better  in  the  material  existence  of  the  people  was 
decreed ;  but  unfortunately  the  Sultan  could  not 
insure  the  carrying  out  of  his  decrees.  The  exchequer, 
impoverished  by  the  extravagance  of  the  palace  and 
the  corruption  of  the  officials,  was  on  the  brink  of 
bankruptcy,  which  was  only  postponed  b}^  the  foreign 
loans  obtained  in  the  succeeding  reign. 

Had  the  Sultan's  perseverance  in  seeing  these 
changes  enforced  been  equal  to  his  good- will  in  ordaining 


ii8  The  People  of  Tiirkey.  it.  i. 

them,  Turkey  might  liave  been  spared  many  of  its  pre- 
sent miseries. 

He  was  beloved  by  his  subjects,  who,  in  the  midst 
of  their  misery,  forgave  his  weakness  in  remembering 
his  gentleness  and  benevolence  to  those  who  appealed 
to  his  mercy.  His  aversion  to  bloodshed  was  so  great 
that  he  was  never  known  to  decree  a  single  execution. 
This  was,  of  course,  a  serious  hindrance  to  carrying 
on  the  judicial  arrangements  of  the  country.  In  cases 
of  urgent  necessity  his  signature  had  to  be  obtained 
by  subterfuge. 

A  lover  of  pleasure  and  ease,  Abdul-Medjid,  on 
coming  to  the  throne,  soon  plunged  into  that  life  of 
self-mdulgence,  luxury,  and  excess,  which  at  once  began 
to  tell  upon  his  delicate  constitution  and  by  degrees 
affected  in  a  most  fatal  manner  his  moral  and  jihj'sical 
faculties;  and  he  died  of  exhaustion  on  June  25th, 
1861. 

His  successor,  Abdul-Aziz,  had  been  the  first  to 
profit  by  the  indulgence  and  liberahty  of  his  brother, 
who  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  his  reign  showed 
him  genuine  brotherly  aifection,  allowed  him  imcon- 
trolled  freedom  as  heir-apparent,  and  furnished  him 
with  a  very  liberal  income,  making  a  point  of  never 
getting  any  object  of  value  for  himself,  without  offer- 
ing its  equivalent  to  his  brother. 

Abdul-Aziz,  however,  did  not  make  any  good  use  of 
the  liberty  he  enjoj'ed  before  coming  to  the  throne. 


CH.  IV.  Abdul- Aziz.  119 


Sensual,  extravagant,  and  narrow-minded,  his  occupa- 
tions and  pleasures  were  anything  but  imperial :  his 
wasteful  habits  were  ruinous  to  his  country,  whilst  his 
want  of  judgment  and  foresight  prevented  his  realising 
the  fatal  eftects  of  his  conduct.  This  may,  however, 
be  accounted  for,  to  a  great  extent,  by  the  fact  that  he 
was  subject  at  times  to  merak  (aberration  of  mind). 
From  an  early  age  he  began  to  give  signs  of  that 
whimsical,  suspicious,  and  morose  disposition  which 
during  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  became  the  principal 
characteristic  of  his  nature. 

Unlike  his  brother,  Abdul-Medjid,  he  was  strongly 
built,  and  his  personal  appearance  was  singularly  un- 
attractive. His  tastes  and  amusements,  very  much  in 
harmony  with  his  exterior,  showed  themselves  in  all 
kinds  of  extravagant  and  odd  fancies.  Cock-fighting 
was  a  spectacle  in  which  he  greatly  delighted,  by  turns 
decorating  or  exiling  the  combatants. 

In  his  moments  of  good  humour  he  often  imposed  a 
wrestling  match  upon  his  ministers  and  favourites,  at 
times  taking  an  active  jDart  in  the  sport.  The  cele- 
brated Nevrez  Pasha,  half  knave,  half  fool,  who  from 
the  lowest  stage  of  seraglio  functions  had  been  raised 
to  a  ministerial  position,  was  the  one  generally  chosen 
by  the  Sultan  with  whom  to  measure  his  strength. 

The  corpulent  Pasha  never  failed  to  be  the  beaten 
party,  the  ludicrous  attitudes  into  which  he  fell ;  and 
his  jokes,  gave  him  a  higher  grade  whenever  they  were 


120  The  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  i. 

called  into  play,  and  caused  liini  to  say  that  every  kick 
he  received  from  the  Imperial  foot  was  worth  to  him  a 
Kishan  (a  decoration),  a  konak,  or  a  vizirlik. 

It  would,  however,  be  unfair  not  to  acknowledge 
in  this  Sultan  some  good  services  rendered  to  his 
country. 

One  of  these  is  the  purchase  of  the  fine  fleet  of  iron- 
clads the  Porte  now  possesses ;  another,  his  untiring 
effoi-ts  in  placing  the  army  on  the,  comi)aratively 
speaking,  improved  and  high  footing  on  which  it  stood 
at  the  beginning  of  the  war ;  and  a  third,  the  construc- 
tion of  the  railways  now  existing  in  the  country.  Some 
will  perhaps  reckon  among  his  merits  the  shrewdness 
he  and  his  ministers  displayed  in  accomplishing  these 
undertakings  with  funds  that  were  not  exactl}^  theirs. 

The  details  of  the  dethronement,  short  captivit}'  and 
death  of  Sultan  Abdul-Aziz,  though  extremely  curious 
and  interesting,  are  as  yet  but  little  known  to  the 
public.  One  of  the  ladies  of  his  seraglio  related 
some  of  the  incidents  connected  with  these  events  to 
me,  but  she  said,  "  we  cannot  now  divulge  all,  for  fear 
of  prejudicing  the  living,  but  in  course  of  time,  when 
history  reveals  unknown  facts,  all  doubts  and  myster}' 
on  his  untimel}'  death  will  be  removed."  Upon  which 
she  burst  into  tears,  and  repeated!}-  uttered  the 
Turkish  exclamation  of   distress,  "Aman!  Aman !  " 

She  then  recited  to  me  in  Arabic,  the  verse  which 
the  unfortunate  Sultan,  on  entering  his  j^rison,  traced 


cii.  IV.  The  Death  of  the  Sultan,  121 

on  the  dust  that  covered  the  table.      The  following  is 
a  translation : — 

Man's  destiny  is  Allah's  will, 
Sceptres  and  power  are  His  alone, 
My  fate  is  written  on  my  brow, 
Lowly  I  bend  before  His  Throne. 

Turning  towards  the  window    the    Sultan   noticed 
that  one  of  his  much-prized  ironclads  had  been  placed 
in  front  of  the  Yaldi  which  serv:^d  as  his   prison,  with 
the    guns    pointed   towards    liim.      But  a    still  more 
appalling  sight  met  his  gaze.     A  sailor  was  seized  by  a 
few  of  his   comrades,   who,   pointing  him   out  to  the 
Sultan,  passed  a  crimson  kushak  or  girdle  round  his 
neck  and  led  him  three  times  round  the  deck,  signify- 
ing to  the   unfortunate  captive  that  in  three  days  he 
would  undergo  the    same    operation.      Pointing    this 
out     to    the    Vahde     Sultana,    he    exclaimed,    with 
emotion:     "Mother!    see    to   what    use    the  force    I 
have  created  for  the  preservation  and  aggrandisement 
of  my  empii-e  is  appKed  !     This  is  evidently  the  death 
reserved   for  me."     A   belt  containing  some  of  the 
most    valuable   crown-jewels,    which  the    Sultan    had 
placed  on   his  person  when  leaving  the  palace,  dis- 
appeared the  day  he  was  found    dead,   and  has  never 
since  been  heard  of.     The  Sultan  had  to  ask  for  food 
repeatedly  before  he  was  supplied  with  it,  and  even 
then    what    he     obtained     was     given    him    on    the 
sofra  of  a  common  soldier.     On  ni}^  further  question- 
ing this  lady  on  the  cause   of  the   Sultan's  untimel}' 


122  The  People  of  Turkey.  rx.  i. 


end,  she  passed  her  hand  over  her  Hj^s,  meaning  they 
were  sealed,  and  muttering  a  "  Turhe  Istafourla " 
said,  "  it  is  not  in  my  power  to  reveal  more  ! — the 
justification  of  the  dead  must  be  withheld  so  long  as 
it  endangers  the  living :  The  duty  of  the  devoted  is  to 
keep  silence  until  history  can  divulge  secrets  that  will 
then  harm  none." 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Abdul- Aziz,  I  had  occasion 
to  discuss  it  with  a  Turkish  general.  Expressing 
his  opinion  of  the  equally  unfortunate  Sultan  Murad, 
the  Pasha,  with  smiling  urbanity,  said,  "  I  cannot  tell 
as  yet;  but  with  us.  Sultans  are  now  so  numerous, 
that  we  can  afford  to  sweep  them  away  successively 
with  a  broom,  if  they  do  not  suit  us." 

Every  one  is  acquainted  with  the  quiet  and  peace- 
able manner  in  which  Sultan  Abdul-Aziz  was  de- 
throned in  1876,  to  make  room  for  his  nephew  Murad. 
This  unfortunate  prince  was  as  little  acquainted 
with  the  changes  that  were  being  planned  as  was  his 
uncle,  and  his  sensitive  nature,  unj)repared  for  the 
shock  that  placed  him  on  the  throne,  caused  him  to 
receive  the  messenger  who  came  to  inform  him  of  the 
change  in  his  position  more  as  the  bearer  of  his  sen- 
tence to  death  than  the  herald  of  sovereignty.  Taken 
by  surprise  at  the  moment  he  was  about  to  retire,  the 
prince  hastily  put  on  his  coat  and  met  the  vizu*  at  the 
door  of  the  Mabeyn.  Deathly  pale,  but  calm  and  re- 
signed, he  looked  in  his  face,  and  said  "  What  is  my 


cFi.  IV.  Stiltaii  Mjirad.  12^ 


o 


ofi'ence,  and  wliom  have  I  ever  harmed  that  I  should 
thus  be  doomed  to  an  untimely  death  ?  " 

Entirely  ignorant  of  the  conspiracy  that  opened  a 
path  for  him  to  the  throne,  and  severely  grieved  for 
his  uncle's  misfortunes,  the  news  of  his  tragical  end  is 
said  to  have  given  the  first  shock  to  the  young 
sovereign's  intellect,  and,  followed  by  the  murder  of 
the  ministers,  with  its  equally  distressing  details, 
determined  the  bent  of  his  vacillating  mind.  One 
of  the  first  symptoms  of  his  insanity  was  a  habit 
he  fell  into  of  spanning  Avith  his  hand  the  distance 
between  the  wrist  and  elbow  joint,  striking  the  bend 
of  the  arm  with  his  hand,  then  starting,  and  reflecting. 
I  have  never  heard  of  his  having  broken  out  into  acts 
of  violence,  except  upon  one  occasion,  when  he  raised 
a  stick  and  struck  his  brother-in-law.  On  one  occa- 
sion he  made  his  escape  into  the  garden,  where  he 
was  found  sitting  on  a  marble  slab,  making  gTimaces 
at  those  who  approached  liim.  He  is  said  to  have 
experienced  some  lucid  intervals ;  one  of  these  chanced 
to  be  at  the  moment  the  salutes  were  being  fired  on  the 
occasion  of  his  brother  Abdul-Hamid's  ascension  to 
the  throne.  Looking  at  his  son,  a  j)romising  youth  of 
fourteen,  he  said,  "  My  boy,  what  is  the  reason  of  this 
firing?"  "Oil!  "  said  the  boy,  wishing  to  spare  his 
father's  feelings,  "  It  is  the  fete  of  a  foreign  monarch." 
"No,"  said  the  unhappy  monarch,  "it  is  the  pro- 
clamation of  my  own  dethronement,  and  the  accession 


124  -^ ^^^  People  of  lui'key.  vi.u 


of  thy  uncle  to  the  throne ;  God's  will  be  done  !  " 
Heaving  a  deep  sigh,  he  shed  a  few  tears,  and,  happily 
for  him,  under  the  circumstances,  relapsed  into  his 
former  state. 

Sultan  Murad  was  said  to  possess  many  of  the 
virtues  of  his  father,  a  kind  and  gentle  disposition, 
and  intelligence  and  liberality  of  ideas.  During  his 
short  reign,  the  affability  of  his  manners,  and  the  de- 
sire he  showed  to  please  all  parties,  irrespective  of 
race  or  religion,  and  to  abohsh  the  burdens  that 
weighed  upon  them,  had  gained  for  him  the  respect 
and  affection  of  his  subjects,  which  is  evinced  even 
to  the  present  day  by  sorrow  and  sympathy  for  his 
misfortunes. 

The  present  Sultan  at  first  declined  the  imperial 
throne,  from  feelings  of  aff'ection  and  delicacy  towards 
his  brother,  and  could  only  be  prevailed  upon  to 
accept  it,  when  all  the  physicians,  called  in  for  advice, 
pronounced  Murad's  case  quite  hopeless.  Sultan 
Abdul-Hamid  is  much  esteemed  and  highly  spoken  of 
by  persons  who  have  had  the  honour  of  conversing 
with  his  Imperial  Maj  esty.  He  is,  moreover,  said  to 
be  qualified  for  his  position,  being  Hberal  in  his 
ideas,  and  possessed  of  many  of  the  qualities  of  a 
good  sovereign,  and  desirous  of  carrying  out  the  re- 
forms that  alone  can  ensure  the  happiness  of  his 
people  and  restore  prosperity  to  the  country.  "Unfor- 
tunately, he  came  to  the  throne  at  a  moment  when  the 


cii.  IV.  Slavery  in   Turkey,  125 

best  and  most  gifted  of  sovereigns  could  do  little 
single-handed.  When  affairs  are  settled,  much  will 
natm'ally  be  expected  from  him,  which  his  friends  and 
the  well-wishers  of  Turke}'  feel  confident  he  will 
realise. 

I  have  not  yet  mentioned  an  important  section  of 
the  Turkish  community — the  slaves.  Slaver}-  in 
Turkey  is  now  reduced  mainly  to  one  sex.  Male 
slaves,  except  in  the  cajjacity  of  eunuchs,  are  now 
rare,  though  every  now  and  then  a  cargo  of  them  is 
smuggled  into  some  port  and  privately  disposed  of, 
since  the  Government  professes  to  share  the  anti- 
slavery  views  of  England.  But  female  slavery  is  a 
necessary  part  of  the  seraglio  and  of  the  Turkish 
harem  system.  The  seraglio  is  of  course  recruited 
from  its  numbers ;  and  few  Turks  can  afford  to  keep 
more  than  one  free  wife.  A  second  wife  insists  upon 
a  separate  establishment,  and  causes  endless  jealousy 
to  the  first  wife  and  trouble  to  the  husband.  But  a 
slave  is  no  cause  of  jealousy,  lives  in  the  same  house 
as  the  wife,  and  costs  much  less  to  keep  than  a  free 
woman.  Female  slaves,  too,  are  generally  given  by 
fathers  to  their  sons,  to  avoid  the  expense  of  a 
marriage ;  and  daughters  on  marrying,  are  alvvavs 
supplied  with  a  slave  as  lady's-maid.  Moreover, 
slaves  are  iu  much  request  as  servants,  and  do  their 
work  excellently,  besides  presenting  many  advantages 
and  conveniences  that  are  not  found  in  free  women. 


126  TJie  People  of  Turkey, 


rr.  I. 


The  condition  of  slaves  in  Turkey  is  not  a  hard 
one.  The  principle  is  of  course  radicall}^  wrong,  and 
the  initial  stage  is  full  of  cruelty.  But  the  women  are 
not  often  ill-treated ;  and  when  an  occasional  case  of 
violence  and  ill-usage  occurs,  it  excites  general  indig- 
nation among  the  Moslems.  A  slave  is  entitled  to  her 
liberty  after  seven  years  of  bondage,  and  she  generally 
gets  it,  and  is  dowered  and  married  to  a  freeman, 
though  sometimes  a  bad  master  will  evade  the  law  by 
selUng  her  before  the  seven  years  have  quite  expired. 
But  tliis  is  a  rare  case,  and  the  slave  system  in  Turkey 
is,  as  a  whole,  a  widely  difterent  thing  from  American 
slavery. 

The  only  class  who  suffer  much  are  the  negresses. 
When  the}'  are  freed  and  married  off  it  not  seldom 
happens  tliat  from  their  native  wildness  or  other 
causes  they  quarrel  with  their  husbands  and  are 
turned  off  to  earn  their  own  living  as  best  they  may. 
Their  condition  then  becomes  very  wretched,  and  the 
quarter  in  which  they  live  is  a  dismal  group  of  rickety 
houses,  inhabited  by  a  miserable  and  ragged  set  of 
women  and  children.  This  is  by  no  means  the  case 
with  the  Abyssmians  or  the  half-castes,  who  rank 
higher,  and  never  have  to  appeal  to  public  charity. 
But  the  negresses  are  hardly  worse  off  than  the  dis- 
abled slaves.  If  a  woman  of  this  class  by  some  acci- 
dent or  age  becomes  unfit  for  work,  she  is  looked  upon 
as  a  burden  and  very  badly  cared  for. 


CH,  IV. 


Slavery.  1 2  7 


Turkish  slavery  is  not  so  bad  as  it  might  be  :  the 
system  is  softened  by  many  humane  laws,  and  is 
marked  by  a  kindly  paternal  character.  Yet  it  is  a 
blot  on  the  country,  and  so  soon  as  the  harem  system 
and  polygamy  can  be  got  rid  of,  it  too  must  go. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE    ARMENIANS    AND   JEWS    IN    TURKEY. 

Historical  Misfortunes  of  the  Armenians — Eefugees  in  Turkey,  Eussia, 
Persia — Want  of  Patriotism — Appearance  and  Cliaraeter — Arme- 
nian Ladies — American  Mission  Work — Schools — The  Jews  of 
Turkey — Eeputed  Origin — Classes — Conservatives  and  Progres- 
sives— Jewish  Trade — Pi'ejudice  against  Jews — Alliance  with 
Moslems — Wealth  and  Indigence — Cause  of  the  Latter — The 
Jewish  Quarter — Education — "  L'Alliance  Israelite  " — Divorce 
among  the  Jews  merely  a  Question  of  the  Highest  Bidder. 

There  are  few  nations  that  can  compete  with  the 
Annenians  in  historical  misery.  Tossed  about  be- 
tween Arsacid,  Roman,  and  Sassanian ;  fought  over 
by  Persian  and  Byzantine  ;  a  common  prey  to  Arabs, 
Mongols,  and  Tui'k,  it  is  a  matter  for  amazement  tliat 
the  nation  still  exists  at  all.  Up  to  the  fourteenth 
century  the  Armenians  held  persistently  to  their  coun- 
try ;  but  after  its  subjection  by  the  Mamluk  Sultans  of 
Egypt,  the  unfortunate  inhabitants,  seeing  no  hope  of 
the  restoration  of  their  old  independence,  and  despair- 
ing of  relief  from  the  oppression  and  spoiling  to  Avhich 
they  had  been  exposed  for  centuries,  began  to  migrate 
to  other  countries,  to  try  whether  fortune  would  every- 
where be  so  unkind  to  them.  Some  went  to  Anatolia, 
others  to   Egypt,   or  to   Constantinople,  Avhere  they 


en.  w  Armenian  Refugees.  129 

were  kindl}-  received  and  allowed  a  Patriarch.  Some 
wandered  into  Poland,  whence  they  were  soon  driven  out 
by  the  determined  hostility  of  the  Jesuits,  and  forced 
to  take  refuge  in  Paissia,  where  they  were  joined  by 
numbers  of  their  compatriots  and  formed  a  colony  at 
Grigoripol.  Others  went  to  the  Crimea  and  Astra- 
chan,  and  many  of  the  Armenians  who  had  first  gone 
to  Turkey  followed  in  their  steps.  The  Armenians 
in  Russia  were  treated  with  great  kindness  by  Peter 
the  Great  and  Catherine,  and  were  granted  special 
rights  and  privileges.  A  colony  of  Armenians  was 
settled  at  New  Nakhitchevan  on  the  Don.  After  more 
persecutions,  from  the  Ottomans,  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, a  large  number  of  Armenian  refugees  set  out  for 
Persia.  The  Shah  received  them  graciously,  and 
settled  them  in  Ispahan.  Afterwards,  during  the  war 
between  the  Shah  and  the  Sultan,  a  depopulation  of 
Armenia  was  attempted,  with  the  view  of  destro_ying 
the  Turkish  power  there.  Twelve  thousand  families 
were  dragged  off  to  Persia,  most  of  Avhom  died  on  the 
way.  The  settlers  at  Ispahan  were  at  first  treated 
well,  but  afterwards  subjected  to  such  persecution  that 
they  were  obliged  to  seek  a  home  in  other  lands.  The 
portion  of  Armenia  ceded  by  Persia  to  Russia,  thus 
acquiring  for  the  first  time  the  necessary  condi- 
tions of  peace  and  safety,  became  the  refuge  of  the 
Armenians  who  had  not  already  left  their  native  land, 
but  who  now,  driven  beyond  endurance  by  the  oppres- 

VOL.   I.  K 


The  People  of  Turkey 


I'l'.  I. 


sive  rule  of  the  Pashas,  crossed  the  frontier  and  imme- 
diately found  themselves  possessed  of  the  ordinary- 
privileges  of  Russian  subjects,  and  able  to  carry  on 
commercial  pursuits,  in  Avliich  the  nation  excels,  in 
peace  and  confidence.  Thus  the  Armenian  race  be- 
came scattered  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  whilst  only  a 
remnant  still  lives  in  the  land  of  its  ancestors.  The 
Armenians  are  to  be  met  with  all  over  the  East- 
There  are  large  numbers  of  them  at  Constantinople 
and  a  few  other  towns,  such  as  Adrianople,  Gallipoli, 
and  Rodosto.  In  the  towns  of  the  interior,  however, 
their  number  is  small. 

Ages  of  Asiatic  oppression,  varied  b}''  few  glimpses 
of  prosperity,  in  the  traditional  garden  of  Eden,  have 
obliterated  whatever  love  the  Armenians  formerly  had 
for  their  country,  wliicli  the)^  willingly  deserted  to  seek 
a  home  wherever  they  could  find  one.  When  the  first 
cravings  of  their  hearts  for  peace  and  security  had 
been  satisfied,  they  settled  down  in  communities,  forgot 
theii*  country  and  its  past  histor}',  and  assimilated  their 
external  forms  and  customs  with  those  of  the  nations 
among  whom  they  lived,  with  the  philosophic  nonclia- 
lance  of  the  Asiatic.  In  Armenia,  the  people  who 
remain,  remembering  the  terrible  sufferings  their 
country  has  gone  through,  have  followed  the  wise 
policy  of  bm^ing  in  the  depths  of  their  hearts  any 
surviving  sparks  of  patriotism  or  love  of  liberty ; 
though  these  hidden  sparks  may  some  day  be  fanned 


CH.  V.  Want  of  Patriotism,  131 

into  flame  b}^  the  introduction  of  education  and  by  the 
influence  Eussia  is  exerting  in  the  countr}^  So  far 
the  Porte  may  felicitate  itself  on  the  success  its  foreign 
policy  has  met  with  iii  Armenia.  This  policy,  with  its 
consequences  of  misery  and  suffermg,  is  safe  only  so 
long  as  ignorance  and  stupid  docility  prevail  among  the 
masses  ;  this  cannot  last  for  ever,  and  in  the  face  of 
present  events  it  Avill  not  be  surprising  to  hear  of 
troubles  breaking  out  in  that  direction  as  well  as 
everywhere  else.  It  is  only  a  question  of  time.  In 
Turkey,  political  feeling  among  the  Armenians  is  still 
in  its  infancy  ;  but  there  must  be  thinking  men  among 
the  educated  young  generation  who  are  watchful  of 
the  present  and  hopeful  for  the  future. 

The  Armenians  as  a  race  are  strong,  well-built,  and 
hardy.  With  these  constitutional  advantages  they 
readily  take  to  the  mechanical  arts  ;  but  commerce 
and  banking  are  their  forte,  and  in  these  they  show 
great  abihty  and  as  much  honesty  as  is  possible  in  a 
country  where,  of  all  difficulties,  that  of  following  a 
straight  line  of  conduct  is  the  greatest.  They  are  con- 
sidered crafty,  but  at  the  same  time  exercise  consider- 
able moral  influence  in  the  countries  they  inhabit, 
especially  at  Constantinople,  where  some  of  the  rich 
Armenians  have  been  very  closely  connected  with  the 
high  dignities  of  the  empu-e.  Their  fancy  for 
toad-eating  is  well  adapted  to  please  the  Turks, 
who    by   turns    show    them     regard    and    contempt. 


13'  ^^he  People  of  Turkey.  i-r.  i. 

There  is  an  old  snyino-,  tliat  no  Turk  can  be  happj'  in 
tlie  evening  without  having  cracked  a  few  jokes  with 
an  Armenian  during  the  da5\ 

The  physiognomy  of  the  Armenians  is  generally 
dark.  Their  heads  are  large,  with  black,  coarse,  and 
abundant  hair.  Their  eyes,  overshadowed  by  long 
eyelashes  and  thick  eyebrows,  meeting  over  the  nose, 
are  black  and  almond-shaped,  but  lack  the  lustre  of 
Greek  eyes.  The  nose,  the  worst  feature  of  the 
Armenian  face,  is  large  and  hooked ;  the  mouth  large, 
with  thick  lips ;  the  chin  prominent.  Their  bearing 
•would  be  dignified  but  for  a  certain  want  of  grace. 
Armenians  are  divided  into  two  classes  denominated 
Kalun  and  Injf,  or  coarse  and  refined.  The  latter 
belong  to  the  Boman  Catholic  creed,  and  are  certainly 
more  advanced  than  the  former,  who  are  far  more 
subservient  to  the  Turks  and  keep  as  much  as  possible 
in  the  background,  devoting  themselves  to  the  inte- 
rests of  the  Porte  in  general  and  to  their  own  in 
particular. 

In  Armenia  the  ladies  are  secluded  to  the  extent  of 
dining  and  sitting  apart  from  the  men,  and  are  said  to 
be  very  backward  in  every  respect.  Their  costume 
very  nearl}'  resembles  that  formerly  worn  by  Turkish 
women.  They  display  the  same  disregard  to  neatness 
as  the  latter,  without  possessing  their  redeeming  point 
of  cleanliness :  their  heads  are  specially  neglected, 
and  abound  in  live  stock  of  a  most  migratory  cha- 


cii.  V.  Armenian  Ladies.  133 

I'acter.  My  mother  once  pointed  out  one  of  these 
creatures  on  tlie  forehead  of  an  Armenian  girl,  and 
reprimanded  her  for  her  neglect  of  her  person ;  the 
girl  answered  that  she  did  not  know  that  any  human 
bemg  could  exist  without  them  ! 

The  Armenian  ladies  of  Constantinople  are  renowned 
for  their  beauty,  which  is  supposed  to  lie  particularly 
in  the  languid  expression  of  their  eyes.  Both  in 
Constantinople  and  Smyrna  there  are  many  Armenians 
of  both  sexes  who  are  well  educated,  and  scarcely  to 
be  distmguished  from  Europeans  in  society.  I  was 
once  invited  to  an  Armenian  fancy  ball,  where  I  was 
the  only  European  present.  Everything  was  arranged 
as  in  civilised  societ}",  the  stewards  were  equal  to  their 
duties,  and  the  costumes  were  recliercJies  and  varied. 
One  sHght  pretty  girl,  in  particular,  dressed  in  the  old 
Turkish  costume,  produced  a  great  sensation,  and  was 
deservingly  besieged  by  partners,  for  she  waltzed  to 
perfection.  Many  of  the  ladies  and  gentlemen  spoke 
English,  and  nearly  all  French,  and  I  certainly  spent 
a  very  pleasant  evening  among  them. 

In  the  privacy  of  their  homes  the  women,  as  a  rule, 
are  untidy  and  slatternly.  They  are  exceedingly  fond 
of  di'ess,  and,  to  the  best  of  their  ability,  copy  the 
Parisian  fashions ;  but  their  natural  want  of  taste 
seldom  fails  to  make  itself  evident  in  toilettes  of 
glaring  and  ill-assorted  colours,  while  theii"  hands, 
arms,  and  necks   are  overloaded  with  jewellery.     Out 


134  'T^i^  People  of  Turkey.  tt.  i. 

of  doors  they  are  shod  with  boots  of  Parisian  manu- 
facture, on  whose  high  heels  tliey  totter  along  the 
hadlj'^-paved  streets ;  but  tlie}^  exchange  them  for 
slip2)ers  down  at  heel  on  re-entering  their  homes. 
Even  those  who  have  lived  in  Europe,  and  no  longer 
consider  themselves  Orientals,  sit  cross-legged  on  their 
sofas  in  the  most  careless  costumes. 

The  Armenians  have  advanced  but  a  very  httle  way 
on  the  road  of  education.  The  most  enlightened  are 
certainly  those  in  British  India,  whilst  those  of  them 
who  are  Russian  subjects  have  of  late  considerably 
improved.  Hitherto,  the  nation  has  never  had  a  fair 
chance,  but  that  it  has  the  possibility  of  progress  in 
it  is  shown  by  the  fact,  that  no  sooner  are  the  Ar- 
menians placed  under  a  firm  and  wise  government 
than  they  at  once  begin  to  go  forwards,  in  ever}- 
respect.  The  progress  of  the  inhabitants  of  Eussian 
Armenia  has  begun  to  work  a  i^olitical  revival  among 
their  brethren  under  Turkish  rule.  A  wish  for  in- 
struction is  everywhere  beginning  to  be  shown,  and  it 
has  received  a  strong  and  most  salutary  impulse  from 
the  numerous  American  missionaries  now  established 
throughout  Armenia.  The  untiring  efforts  of  these 
praiseworthy  and  accomplished  workers  in  the  cause 
of  civilisation  and  humanity  are  beginning  to  bear 
fruit,  especially  since  education  has  become  one  of 
their  principal  objects.  They  are  working  wonders 
among  the  uncultivated  inhabitants   of   this  hitherto 


cir.  V.  American  Missions.  135 

unhappy  country,  where  mission-schools,  founded  in 
all  directions,  are  doing  the  douhle  service  of  in- 
structing the  people  by  their  enlightened  moral  and 
religious  teaching,  and  of  stimulating  among  the 
wealthy  a  spirit  of  livalry,  which  leads  them  to  see 
their  own  ignorance  and  superstitious  debasement,  and 
raises  a  desire  to  do  for  themselves,  by  the  establish- 
ment of  Armenian  schools,  what  American  philanthropy 
has  so  nobly  begun  to  do  for  them. 

The  moral  influence  that  America  is  now  exercising 
in  the  East  through  the  quiet  but  dignified  and  de- 
termined policy  of  its  Legation  at  Constantinople, 
curiously  free  from  political  intrigues  and  rivalry, 
is  daily  increasing,  and  has  the  most  salutary  effect  on 
the  country.  It  watches  with  a  jealous  care  over  the 
rights  and  safety  of  the  missionaries,  who  are  loved 
nnd  respected  wherever  they  settle,  and  make  their 
influence  felt  in  the  remotest  corners  of  Turkey. 
Next  to  Greece,  whose  educational  efforts  are  naturall}- 
greater  throughout  the  country,  it  is  America  that  will 
be  entitled  to  the  gratitude  of  the  Christians  for  her 
read}-^  aid  in  elevating  the  ignorant  masses  to  the 
dignity  of  civilised  beings. 

In  the  Armenian  schools,  the  Turkish,  Armenian, 
and  French  languages  are  taught :  the  two  former  are 
generally  well  mastered  by  the  pupils,  Ainnenians 
being  considered  apt  linguists  :  a  very  fair  knowledge 
of  French  is  also  common  among  them. 


136  The  People  of  Ttu'key.  rr.  i. 


Armenians  do  not  show  iiny  taste  for  the  arts  and 
sciences.  One  seldom  hears  of  an  Armenian  artist, 
doctor,  or  law_yer,  and  the  few  that  do  exist  attain 
onl^^'mediocrity. 

It  is  difficult  to  obtain  correct  statistical  information 
of  native  Armenian  schools,  but  I  can  affirm  that  of 
late  yeai's  they  have  greatly  increased  in  number,  and 
are  much  improved  in  their  organisation  and  mode  of 
teachmg.     At  Constantinople,  Erzeroum,  and   many 
other   towns   where   the   Armenian   communities   are 
large,  excellent  schools  for  girls  have  been  fomided. 
In  towns  where  these  are  wantmg,  many  girls  are  sent 
for  a  few  years  to  the  boys'  schools,  where  religion, 
readmg,  and  writing  are  taught  them.     Turkish,  the 
language  with  which  the   Ai'menians   are  most  con- 
versant, is  also    taught   from   books   written   in   the 
Armenian  characters.     In  all  other  respects,  the  edu- 
cation of  Armenian  giiis  is  very  much  neglected ;  from 
an  early  age  they  fall  into  a  listless,  aimless  existence, 
and  are  seldom  taught  to  busy  themselves  with  needle- 
work or  any  useful  or  rational  employment.     Some  of 
the  wealthy  families   at  Constantinople  and   Smyrna 
are  manifesting  a  desii'e  for  improvement  in  this  re- 
spect, by  engaging  European  governesses  or  sending 
their  cliildi'en  to  Em'opean  schools  ;  but  it  will  be  long 
before  either   sex  gets  rid  of  the  ignorance  and  in- 
dolence  which  circumstances,   perhaps,   as   much   as 
nature,  have  forced  upon  it. 


CH.  V.  The  Jews  of  Tiirkey.  1 3  7 


The  Jews  dwelling  in  Turkey  are,  to  a  great  extent, 
descendants  of  those  expelled  from  Spain  by  the 
Inquisition  and  the  edict  of  1492  :  their  language  is 
a  corrupt  Spanish  dialect;  but  they  are  conversant 
with  those  of  the  places  they  inhabit.  Besides  these 
and  other  native  Jews,  there  is  an  influential  class  of 
European  Jews  who  are  certainly  in  the  van  of  pro- 
gress among  their  co-religionists  in  Turkey.  They 
are  educated,  liberal-minded  men,  and,  as  a  rule,  a 
prosperous  class.  They  are  untiring  m  their  eftbrts 
to  develop  education  among  the  native  Jews  by  es- 
tablishing schools,  assistmg  the  poor,  and  setting  a 
good  example  of  conduct  by  their  own  higher  manner 
of  life. 

The  native  Jews  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
Conservative  and  Progressive.  The  Conservative  Jews 
are  strict,  rigid,  and  intolerant  to  their  brethren : 
they  keep  aloof  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  and  ndx 
with  it  only  in  business  transactions.  They  are 
cunning  and  avaricious,  and  although  some  possess 
large  fortunes,  they  are  seldom  known  to  use  them 
for  the  benefit  of  the  community,  or  for  any  other  good 
purpose.  Strongly  opposed  to  liberal  education,  the 
influence  they  exercise  over  their  respective  communi- 
ties is  always  employed  to  counteract  the  action  of 
the  enhghtened  party.  The  Progressive  Jews,  who  are 
becoming  pretty  numerous  among  the  upper  classes, 
act     in    direct    opposition    to   these    principles    and 


138  TJic  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  i. 

endeavour  as  much  as   possible  to  shake  off  okl  cus- 
toms and  traditions. 

The  chief  occupations  of  tlie  Jewish  community  are 
banking  and  commerce.  They  excel  in  both  to  such  a 
degi'ee,  that  where  a  man  belonging  to  another  nation- 
ality can  only  realise  a  fair  competence,  the  Israelite 
makes  a  fortune  ;  whilst  in  positions  in  which  other 
men  would  starve,  the  Jew  will  manage  to  keep  himself 
and  family  in  comfort.  The  secret  of  this  well-known 
fact  lies  in  the  unusual  finesse  and  ability  displayed 
by  Israelites  occujiying  high  positions  in  the  business 
world,  and  the  cunning  and  ingenuity  of  the  lower 
orders,  who  with  moderate  exertion  make  the  most  of 
their  trade,  and  extort  all  they  can  from  those  with 
whom  they  have  dealings. 

With  regard  to  moral  and  personal  qualifications, 
the  Jews  of  Turkey  are  the  most  backward  and  de- 
based of  any  of  the  races.  This  degenerate  condition 
may  be  attributed  to  more  than  one  cause.  One  of 
the  chief  causes,  however,  is  the  general  feeling  of 
antij)athy  shown  towards  Jews  in  a  semi-civilised 
country :  all  kinds  of  real  and  fictitious  sins  are  attri- 
buted to  them,  from  the  charge  of  kidnapping  children 
(an  absurdity  still  credited  everywhere  in  Turkey)  to 
the  proverbial  accusation  of  never  transacting  business 
with  members  of  other  creeds  without  infringing  the 
laws  of  good  faith  and  honesty.  To  apply  this  latter 
charge  to  the  whole  community  would  be  unjust,  for 


CH.  Y.  Alliance  with  Moslems.  139 

there  are  honest,  Kberal,  and  straightforward  men  ; 
but  there  is  no  doubt  the  reputation  is  not  altogether 
ill-earned  among  them. 

The  Jews  in  Turkey  have  from  all  times  shown  a 
greater  liking  for  their  Moslem  neighbours  than  for 
the  Christians.  The  Moslems  sneer  at  them  and  treat 
them  with  disrespect  as  a  nation,  but  are  far  more 
tolerant  and  lenient  towards  them  than  towards  the 
Christians.  The  Jews,  on  their  side,  although  at  heart 
feeling  no  disposition  to  respect  theii'  Mohammedan 
masters,  show  great  sympathy  outwardly  for  them ; 
and  in  case  of  a  dispute  between  Christians  and 
Mohammedans,  unanimously  esjjouse  the  cause  of  the 
latter.  The  wealthy  Israelites  Avould  render  every 
assistance  in  their  power  to  remove  the  difficulties  of 
the  Government,  while  those  of  humbler  standing  ten- 
der their  service  for  the  performance  of  anything  that 
may  be  required  of  them,  however  degrading. 

In  few  countries  is  the  contrast  of  wealth  and  indi- 
gence among  the  Jews  so  striking  as  in  Turkey.  On 
one  side  may  be  seen  wealth  so  great  as  to  command 
respect  for  its  possessors,  and  give  them  an  intluence 
in  the  localities  in  which  they  spring  up  greater  than 
that  of  all  other  nationalities  :  whilst  hard  by  one  sees 
poverty  and  wretchedness  of  the  most  sickening  nature. 
The  principal  cause  of  this  is  the  limited  sphere  of 
action  allotted  to,  or  rather  adoj^ted  b}',  the  Jewish 
commmiities.      They  evince   a  strong  repugnance  to 


140  The  People  of  Tuj'kcy.  i>t,  1. 

going  bej'ond  the  few  trades  generally  practised  by  the 
labouring  classes ;  the  rest  content  themselves  with 
l^erforming  the  coarsest  and  dirtiest  work  of  the  town. 
From  generation  to  generation  the  Jews  Avill  cling 
to  these  callings  without  allowing  themselves  to  be 
tempted  beyond  them,',  or  raising  themselves  in  the 
social  scale  by  taking  to  agricultural  or  other  pursuits 
that  might  ensure  them  a  comfortable  home  and  an 
honourable  living. 

In  towns  where  the  Jewish  element  predominates,  it 
is  packed  in  dingy,  crowded  quarters,  in  hovels,  bmied 
ill  filth.  These  miserable  abodes  contrast  strongly  with 
the  fine  and  showy  houses  of  the  rich.  Both  rich  and 
poor  of  the  native  Jews  may  be  seen  in  their  court- 
yards or  at  their  doors,  the  mother  rocking  the  cradle, 
the  children  playing  in  the  mud,  and  the  women  and 
girls  washing  or  engaged  in  other  household  occupa- 
tions. The  men  on  coming  home  doii  their  neglige 
indoor  costume  and  join  the  family  part}-,  lounging  on 
a  sofa  smoking  and  chattuig.  This  community  is  very 
noisy,  the  most  natural  conversation  among  them  being 
carried  on  in  the  loud  tones  of  livel}'  dispute,  all  talk- 
ing at  once  in  such  an  elevated  key  as  to  be  heard  at  a 
considerable  distance. 

They  are  certainly  lively  and  cheerful,  neither  want 
nor  poverty  detaining  them  at  recreation-time  from 
listening  to  their  discordant  national  music,  which  they 
accompany  by  a  vocal  performance  of  a  deafening  nature. 


CH,  V.  Jewish  Education.  141 


Some  of  the  women  are  very  prett}-,  and  their  beaut}' 
is  heightened  by  their  peculiar  costume  and  gaj'  head- 
dress. They  are,  however,  cokl  and  rather  gi'aceless 
in  demeanour,  and  are  not  noted  for  intelhgence. 

Education  among  the  native  Jews  was  completely 
neglected  until  very  recently,  when  the  efforts  of 
the  European  Jews  and  a  few  of  the  liberal  natives 
finally  produced  a  beneficial  reaction,  and  schools  of  a 
superior  order,  principaUy  dependencies  of  "  L'Alliance 
Israelite  "  formed  in  Europe  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Eastern  Jews,  have  been  established  in  all  the  princi- 
pal towns,  and  are  said  to  have  greatly  benefited  the 
rising  generation,  which  is  wanting  neither  in  intelli- 
gence nor  aptitude  for  study.  Before  the  establish- 
ment of  these  schools  the  Jews  had  to  send  their 
children  to  European  or  Greek  schools,  where  they 
received  an  indifferent  st^de  of  education,  as  the  train- 
ing, owing  to  the  difference  of  rehgion  and  habits,  did 
not  include  the  complete  course. 

The  director  of  the  schools  established  by  "  L'Alli- 
ance Israelite  "  gave  me  most  satisfactory  accounts  of 
the  progress  made  by  the  pupils  attending  them,  and 
of  the  increase  of  morality  among  them.  The  Jewish 
girls  have  not  equal  advantages  Avith  the  boys  with 
respect  to  educational  estabhshments.  This  unfortu- 
nate difference  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  in  time  remedied 
by  the  schools,  founded  by  the  same  society  and 
others,  in  the  principal  towns.     All  these  schools  owe 


142  The  People  of  Ttirkey.  pt.  1. 

their  origin  to  the  generosity  of  wealth}'^  Israelities  like 
Baron  Hirsh  and  others,  who  have  endowed  the  estab- 
lishments with  the  funds  necessary  for  rendering  them 
useful  and  of  lasting  duration.  In  Salonika  the  girls' 
school,  estabhshed  some  years  ago,  has,  thanks  to  the 
able  management  and  munificence  of  the  Messrs.  Alla- 
tini,  been  placed  upon  an  excellent  footing,  and,  being 
presided  over  by  the  most  intelligent  and  gifted  Euro- 
pean ladies  of  the  commmiity,  is  doing  great  and  good 
sei'vice. 

Besides  these  schools,  there  is  one  of  older  standing 
connected  with  the  Missionary  Society,  under  the  di- 
rection of  a  missionary  and  three  able  and  devoted 
Scottish  ladies,  who  receive  a  large  class  of  day  pupils 
and  give  them  the  benefit  of  sound  education  for  a 
trifling  fee.  This  part  of  missionary  work  is  in  reality 
the  best  and  most  beneficial  to  the  community,  and  far 
more  so  than  the  efforts  made  at  proselytism — efforts 
which,  so  far  as  I  can  ascertain,  have  nowhere  met 
with  success. 

Polygamy  is  prohibited  among  the  Jews  :  but  their 
divorce  laws  are  ver}"  lenient ;  and  a  separation  's  the 
•easiest  thing  in  the  world — for  the  husband.  A  wife 
■cannot  get  a  separation  without  her  husband's  consent. 
Practically,  however,  this  is  seldom  refused  if  a  sum  of 
money  is  offered.  A  gentleman,  aware  of  this  Jewish 
weakness,  and  falling  in  love  with  a  SjTian  beauty  who 
was  married  to  a  Jew,  bought  her  divorce  for  2,000Z. 


<=H-  V.  Jewish  Divorce.  143 


o 


In  some  towns  the  morality  of  the  community  is 
closely  watched.  In  Adiianople,  for  instance,  a  faith- 
less wife  is  led  for  three  successive  days  round  the 
Jewish  quarter,  and  compelled  to  stop  before  every' 
door  to  be  spat  upon  and  abused.  At  Salonika,  where 
the  Jews  are  very  numerous,  it  is  quite  otherwise. 
Among  the  wealthy  and  liberal  many  of  the  old  cus- 
toms have  been  set  aside,  intermarriage  with  European 
Jewish  families  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  many 
modifications  permitted  which  do  not  seem  strictly 
conformed  to  the  Mosaic  law. 

The  affairs  of  the  Jewish  communities,  like  those  of 
the  Christians,  are  managed  by  elders.  The  chief 
Rabbi  has  control  over  all  matters  regarding  the  reli- 
gious and  social  interests,  and  is  in  direct  communica- 
tion with  his  superior  at  Constantinople. 


CHAPTEE  VI. 

THE    CIRCASSIANS,    TATARS,    AND    GIPSIES    OF    TURKEY. 

The  Circassians. — Their  Immigration    into  Turkey  in  18G-t  —  Their 
Camp— Chiefs  and  Slaves — Origin  of  the  charge  of  Cannibalism 
— Assistance  of  the  Government  and  the  Peasantry — Bulgarian 
Views  of  the  New-comers— A  Cherkess  Girl — Sale  of  Circassian 
Women  —  Depredations  —  Cattle-lifting  —  Circassian     fellow- 
travellers  in  a  Steamer — Appearance  and  Character — Scheme  of 
philanthropy  respectfully  ofEered  to  Russia. 
The  Tatars. — Their  Arrival  in  the  Dobrudeha  with  a  Good  Character, 
which  they  have  since  maintained — Their  excellent  qualities  as 
Artisans — Religion — Women — Dirtiness — Tallow  their  Specialty 
— Rivalry  of  Jewish  and  Tatar  Hawkers. 
Tlic  Gipsies. — Legend  of  the  origin  of  the  name  Chenguin — Abhor- 
rence of  them  by  the  Turks — Religion  and  Superstitious   Cus- 
toms— Nomad   Life — Two    Classes — Physical    Characteristics — 
Reported  Witches — Indiscriminate  Pilfering — A  Case  of  Horse- 
stealing— Gipsy  Cunning  in  the  Market — Gipsy   Avocations — 
Character — Gipsy- Soldiers — Town  Gipsies— Agricultm-al  Gipsies. 

In  1864,  Russia,  the  present  champion  of  the 
subject  races  of  Turkey,  was  busy  in  her  own  vast 
dominions  giving  the  cmq-)  dc  grace  to  the  unruly  and 
only  half-subjugated  Circassians.  These  j^eople,  during 
a  period  of  eighty  years,  resisted  Russian  aggression, 
defending  their  homes  and  liberties  at  the  point  of  the 
sword,  until  the  consequences  of  war,  famine,  and 
misery  compelled  them  to  yield  to  the  superior  power  of 
the  Czar.  They  were  offered  the  choice  of  migTating  to 


CH,  VI.  Circassian  Iimnigrajits.  145 

the  lower  steppes  of  that  land,  where  Russian  discipline 
alone  could  tame  them,  or  of  quitting  the  countr}^ 
Some  accepted  the  former  alternative,  while  a  large 
j)ortion,  consisting  of  about  300,000  souls,  preferred 
to  accept  the  hospitality  of  Turkey.     Before  leaving 
the    shores    of  their    beloved   native   land,    collected 
on  the    beach   like    a   herd    of  wild   animals    caught 
in  a  storm,  they  raised  their  voices  and  cried  aloud 
against   the   injustice   and    cruelty   they,    with    their 
wives   and   children,    had   received    at   the    hands    of 
the    Muscovites.     That  voice    reached   Turkey,  who, 
whatever  her  sins  are,  has  never  been  known  to  refuse 
shelter  and  assistance  to  the  homeless  and  the  refugee. 
A  proof  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  harbour  offered 
within  my  recollection  to  the  exiled  Prince  of  Persia, 
Kouli    Mirza,    subsequently    a    pensioner    of    Great 
Britain  ;  the  famous  Sj^ian  chieftain,  the  Emir  Beshir 
and  his  party  ;  the  Polish,  Wallachian,  and  Hungarian 
refugees,  and  Abdul  Kadir;  the  Algerine  captive  chief, 
who  obtained  permission  from  Napoleon  to  reside  in 
Turkey.     All  these  with  their  followers  were  received 
with  hospitality,  treated  with  kindness,  and,  in  some 
cases,   allowed  pensions  while  they  remained  in  the 
country. 

This  gift  of  Bussia  to  Tm'key  was,  as  far  as  the 
female  portion  of  it  was  concerned,  as  irresistible  as 
the  beauteous  Pandora  is  said  to  have  been  to  Epime- 
theus  ;  and  the  Circassian  ladies  certainly  brought  with 

VOL.   I.  L 


146  The  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  i. 


tliem   the    equivalent  for  Pandora's  famous   box,   in 
the   shape    of    their    kith    and    kin,    who    dispersed 
themselves    nil    over    the    country,    and,    from    that 
moment,   have    never    ceased    to    do    mischief,    and 
justify  Russia's  treatment  of  them.     I  have  had  oppor- 
tmiities  of  seeing  these  people  since  their  arrival  in 
Turkey,    of  watching    them    in   the    different   stages 
through  which  they  have  passed,  and  noting  the  irre- 
parable  harm   they  have    done   to   the   country  that 
offered  them   an  asylum.      On  landing,   about  2,000 
were   quartered    in    a    httle    wood.       Emaciated    by 
the   long   sufferings    of    the    journey,    covered    with 
vermin,    and   half  famished,   they   encamped    on  the 
damp    soil    in    the     early    spring,    some    sheltering 
themselves    under     the     trees,    others    under    such 
tattered   tents   as  they  possessed,  all  closely  packed 
together,  the  sick  lying  face  to  face  with  the  dead,  and 
the  living  moving,  gaunt  and  ghostlike,  among  them, 
careless  of  everything  except  getting  money.     As  we 
neared  the  infected  camp,  bands  of  men  and  women 
came  forward,  holding  their  children  by  the  hand  and 
offering  to  sell  them  to  any  who  would  buy.     The  httle 
wretches  themselves  seemed  anxious  to  be  separated 
from  their  unnatural  parents,  in  the  hope  of  gettmg 
food    and    better    shelter.      These    Cu-cassians   were 
divided  into  two  classes,  the  chieftains  and  the  slaves. 
Each  regarded  the  other  with  distrust ;  the  one  expect- 
ing from  his  slave  the  abject  obedience  he  had  been 


CH.  VI.  Circassians  in  Bulgaria.  147 

accustomed  to  receive  in  his  native  land ;  the  other, 
aware  of  the  change  in  his  condition,  ready  to  dispute 
this  right  with  his  former  master. 

Rations  and  clothes  were  distributed  by  the  Turkish 
authorities,  but  the  master  took  his  slave's  portion  and 
sold  it  for  profit.  The  slave,  on  his  side,  stole  what  he 
could,  and  stripped  even  the  dead  of  his  last  covering, 
leaving  the  corpse  to  be  devoured  by  dogs.  The  sight 
of  these  bodies  by  the  townspeople  and  others  origi- 
nated the  idea  that  these  people  were  cannibals,  and 
this  reputation  preceding  the  Circassians,  on  their 
march  further  into  the  country,  caused  a  panic  on 
their  route.  Children  ran  away  on  their  approach,  and 
even  the  peasants  themselves,  instinctively  aware  of 
the  pernicious  nature  of  the  element  introduced  among* 
them,  did  their  best  to  avoid  giving  them  offence  in. 
refusing  assistance. 

The  majorit}^  of  the  Circassians  distributed  in 
European  Turkey  are  settled  in  the  Dobrudclia ;  the 
rest  were  allotted  patches  of  ground  in  all  parts  of 
Bulgaria  and  in  other  provinces,  where  the  peasants 
were  called  upon  to  supplement  the  Government  in  pro- 
viding them  with  cattle,  grain,  and  all  other  requisites 
necessary  to  start  them  as  settlers.  The  Bulgarian 
peasants  stoically  made  it  a  point  of  duty  to  render 
every  assistance  in  their  power  to  the  destitute 
and  helpless  creatures    so    strangely  brought   among- 

them,    and    Circassian    settlements    soon    started  up 

L  2 


148  The  People  of  Ttirkey.  rr.  i. 

like  weeds  by  tlie  side  of   tlie  peaceful  and  thriving 
villages. 

Four  years    later   I   had    again    occasion   to   pass 
through  these  settlements,  and  was  much  surprised  at 
the  transformation  in  the  appearance  of  the  Circas- 
sians.   The  men,  dressed  in  their  picturesque  costume, 
wearmg  their  arms,  some  of  which  were  curious  and 
rich  pieces  of  Eastern  workmanship,  were  lazily  lounging 
about  the  commons  of  their  villages  :  while  the  women, 
arrayed  in  their  dress  of  red  silk  braided  with  gold, 
presided   over  their    household    duties.      Some   well- 
conditioned  cattle,  driven  by  Circassian  youths,  were 
grazing  in  the  surrounding  meadows.     I  stopped  at  a 
Bulgarian  village   opj^osite  one  of  these  settlements. 
It   was    a    '^rasnili    or  feast    day,  and  the  Bulgarian 
youth  and  beauty,  dressed  in  their  best,  were  dancing 
the    liora.        As    our    party   approached,   the    dance 
stopped,  and  the  women  saluting  me  with  a  cheerful 
smile,  regarded  me  with  great  curiosity.     The  head- 
man of  the  village  came  forward,  and,  with  a  hearty 
welcome,  offered  me  hospitahty  for  the  night.     I  had  a 
long  and  interesting  conversation  with  him  and  the  elders 
of  the  little  communit}' upon  the  Circassian  settlements. 
The  Bulgarian  peasants  even  at  that  early  date  had  a 
long  list  of  grievances  against  theii'  new  neighbours. 
Pointing  to  the  opposite  village,  they  assured  me  that 
its  very  foundation  and  prosperity  was  due  to  Bul- 
garian labour  and  money.     ''  The  Circassians,"   said 


cii.  VI.  A   Circassian    Village.  149 


they,  "  lounge  about  the  whole  clay,  as  you  see  them 
doing  now.  Their  industry  does  not  extend  beyond 
the  sowing  of  a  few  bushels  of  millet  for  the  use  of 
their  families.  Their  cattle,  as  well  as  most  of  their 
belongings,  are  not  for  work,  but  are  stolen  property 
that  they  are  freely  allowed  to  appropriate  to  them- 
selves to  the  prejudice  of  the  peasants."  The  poor 
men  seemed  much  concerned  at  this  new  evil  that  had 
befallen  them.  "  We  never  get  redress  for  the  wrongs 
done  by  our  neighbours,"  said  they ;  "  and  if  the 
Government  functionaries  continue  to  disregard  our 
complaints,  and  to  allow  the  depredations  of  these 
marauders  to  go  unpunished  as  they  have  hitherto 
done,  not  only  our  property  but  our  lives  will  be  at 
their  merc3^" 

A  Circassian  girl  from  the  village  on  seeing  me  came 
forward,  and  with  tears  in  her  eyes  implored  me  to 
take  her  with  me  and  keep  her  in  my  service.  She  was 
about  eighteen  years  of  age,  a  beautiful  creature,  dark 
complexioned,  with  sparlding  eyes,  which  overflowed 
when  I  refused  her  request.  "I  am  perishing  with 
ennufi  here,"  she  said,  "in  this  dreadful  outlandish 
place,  without  a  hope  or  chance  of  getting  away  by 
being  sold  or  rescued  by  some  charitable  person  who 
might  take  me  to  Stamboul ! ''  Surprised  at  her 
statement,  I  asked  why  she  did  not  do  as  others  of  her 
nation,  and  msist  upon  being  sold '?  With  a  look  of 
hopeless  despondency  she  replied  :  "  None  now  dares 


1 50  The  People  of  Turkey.  vr.  i. 

to  buy  the  cherkess  girls  belonging  to  the  emigrants." 
She  would  give  me  no  further  information,  but  through 
subsequent  inquir}'^  I  learnt  that  the  Turkish  Govern- 
ment, among  the  laws  it  had  made  relating  to  the 
Circassians,  had  deprived  them  of  the  right  of  selling 
their  children  as  they  formerly  did  in  their  native 
country,  and  had  also  decreed  the  liberation  of  the 
slaves  held  by  them.  But  this  law,  lilce  many  others, 
was  disregarded,  and  the  chieftains  continued  to  treat 
their  subjects  as  slaves,  a  cause  of  constant  quarrelling 
and  bloodshed  among  them.  Some  broke  out  into 
open  rebellion  and  refused  to  obey  their  master  as 
such,  while  the  chiefs,  strong  in  the  close  alliance 
that  existed  among  them,  could  at  all  times,  notwith- 
standing the  interference  of  the  authorities,  bring 
their  subjects  to  terms  by  taking  the  law  into  their 
own  hands. 

AVitli  regard  to  selling  their  children,  it  was  neither 
the  law  prohibiting  the  practice,  nor  the  want  of  pur- 
chasers, that  put  a  stoj)  to  it,  but  the  abuse  made  of  it 
by  the  Circassians  themselves.  For  instance,  two 
brothers  would  agree  to  sell  a  sister  to  some  Moham- 
medan, who,  after  having  paid  the  monej'  and  obtained 
l)ossession  of  the  girl,  was  suddenly  called  before  the 
local  courts  to  answer  the  charge  brought  b}'  her 
father,  without  whose  consent  it  was  pretended  the 
daughter  had  been  ravished  and  illegally  sold.  The 
purchaser  thus  losing  his  prize  without  receiving  back 


cir.  VI.  Cattle- Lifting.  151 

tlie  money  he  had  paid  to  the  dishonest  Circassians, 
and  being  condemned  for  the  proceeding  by  the  law, 
made  known  the  midesirabihty  of  such  purchases 
among  his  friends,  and  deprived  them  of  any  wish  to 
participate  in  such  troublesome  business. 

The  depredations  of  the  Circassians  became  so  ex- 
tensive that  from  one  farm  alone  in  the  district  of 
Adrianople  three  hundred  and  fifty  head  of  cattle  were 
stolen  and  never  recovered. 

A  systematic  company  of  cattle-stealers  was  esta- 
blished all  over  Bulgaria ;  the  stolen  animals  taken 
from  the  villages  found  their  way  to  Rodosto  and 
Gallipoh,  where  they  were  shipped  to  Asia  Minor  and 
exchanged  with  stolen  cattle  from  that  coast.  The 
dexterity  with  which  a  Circassian,  mtroducing  himself 
into  a  stud,  takes  possession  of  the  best  horse,  is  the 
terror  and  wonder  of  the  farmer.  He  uses  a  kind  of 
lasso,  which,  cast  over  the  head  of  the  animal,  enables 
him  to  mount  it  and  stick  to  it  as  if  horse  and  rider 
were  one.  Tlie  wildest  animal  is  soon  cowed  under  the 
iron  sway  of  the  rider,  and  disappears,  to  be  seen  no  more. 

A  gentleman  wishing  to  procure  a  good  horse  from 
a  Circassian,  asked  the  owner  if  the  animal  was  a 
good  trotter  ?  The  Circassian  with  a  malicious  smile 
answered,  "  Sir,  he  will  take  you  to  the  world's  end,  so 
long  as  you  are  careful  not  to  turn  his  head  in  the 
du'ection  of  Philippopolis,  but  in  that  case  I  do  not 
guarantee  Imn !  " 


152  The  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  i. 

Another  incident,  illustrative  of  the  thievish  pro- 
pensities of  these  people,  was  related  to  me  of  a  carter 
who,  driving  his  waggon  from  town,  fell  asleep  in  it, 
and  was  met  b}'  a  band  of  Circassians,  who  thought 
the  prize  too  tempting  to  be  allowed  to  escape.  Some 
of  the  party,  therefore,  took  to  unharnessing  the  oxen, 
and  two  of  them,  taldng  the  place  of  the  captured 
animals,  kept  the  cart  going  while  the  others  went  off 
with  the  oxen.  When  these  were  at  a  fair  distance, 
their  substitutes  gave  the  cart  a  strong  jerk  to  arouse 
the  poor  unsuspecting  driver,  and  heartUy  saluting  him, 
disappeared  across  country. 

So  long  as  Cu'cassian  marauding  was  limited  to  inci- 
dents of  this  nature  the  peasants  put  up  with  it,  and  in 
many  cases  abstained  even  from  complaimng  to  the 
authorities  ;  but  gradually  the  proceedings  of  this  dan- 
gerous race  assumed  a  character  the  gravity  of  which 
only  escaped  public  notice  because  of  the  general 
disorganisation  that  followed. 

Becoming  prosperous  and  wealthy  through  their 
continual  depredations  and  robberies,  the  youthful 
portion  of  the  community  that  had  escaped  siclaiess 
on  first  landing  formed  a  lawless  hostile  faction  in  the 
land,  having  as  little  respect  for  the  authority  of  the 
Porte  as  for  the  life  and  property  of  the  natives.  When 
the  Government  tried  some  years  ago  to  bring  a  por- 
tion of  them  under  military  discipline,  they  rebelled 
and  gave  much  trouble  to  the  authorities  in  the  capital 


CH.  VI.  Clierkcss  Fcllozv   Travellers. 


Do 


itself,  where  it  was  found  necessary  to  seize,  exile,  and 
otherwise  punish  some  of  the  chiefs  for  insubordina- 
tion. 

I  happened  to  be  travelling  in  a  Turkish  steamer 
with  thirty  of  these  rebellious  subjects.     Their  chief 
was  said  to  have  been  an  influential  person,  holding 
the  rank  of  aide-de-camp  to  a  member  of  the  Imperial 
family,  perha^Ds  the  famous  Cherkess  Hasan,  who  nearly 
two  years  ago  murdered  the  Ministers.     The  Turkish 
officer  who  had  charge  of  these  troublesome  prisoners 
told  me  that  for  two  months  he  and  his  men  had  given 
chase  to  this  band,  who  had  escaped  into  Asia  Minor, 
where  they  had  continued  their  depredations,  and  were 
only  secured  at  last  by  being  surrounded  in  a  forest. 
Thej^  appeared  a  dreadful  set  of  cut-throats — not  at 
all  pleasant  fellow-passengers — and  their  guards  had  to 
keep   good   watch  over   them.      This   officer   further 
stated  that  the  Sultan,  out  of  kindness,  had  invited  them 
into  his  dominions,  giving  them  land,  and  every  o]> 
portunity  of  settling  down  and  becoming  useful  mem- 
bers of  society;  but  it  was  a  sad  mistake,  for  they 
would  neither  work  nor  yield   to    discipline,   neither 
would  they  make  any  efforts  to  requite  the  Government 
for  the  benefit  they  had  received,  but  in  every  instance 
proved  their  reputation  for  lawlessness  and  depredation. 
It   is    an    important   fact   that   before    the    Bulgarian 
troubles  the  peasants  of  the  districts  where  the  Cir- 
cassians   were    in   force    dared    no    longer    circulate 


154  '^^^<^  People  of  Turkey.  v\.\. 

except  in  companies  of  fifty  or  sixty,  and  that 
murderous  attacks  had  become  every  da^^  occur- 
rences. 

Although  protected  m  some  high  quarters  in  conse- 
quence of  their  close  connection  through  famil}'  ties, 
the  Cii'cassians  are  generally  disliked  and  distrusted, 
especially  by  the  people,  who  have  no  such  strong 
reasons  for  protecting  them.  In  physical  features 
they  often  present  splendid  specimens  of  the  famed 
Circassian  type,  though  not  unfrequently  bearing  a 
great  resemblance' to  the  Mongolian.  In  manner  they 
are  haughty  and  even  insulting,  with  an  air  of  disdain 
and  braggadocio  such  as  no  really  brave  man  assumes. 
In  character  the  Cherkess  is  undoubtedly  cowardly, 
cruel,  and  false.  Education  he  has  none,  so  that  all 
the  evil  passions  of  his  nature,  unchecked  by  any 
notion  of  moral,  religious,  or  civil  obligation,  have  deve- 
loped themselves  with  irresistible  force,  and  prompted 
him  to  acts  that  duiing  the  last  two  years  have 
placed  the  name  of  the  Circassian  below  that  of  the 
gipsy. 

It  is  said  that  they  are  to  be  expelled  from  Em^o- 
pean  Turkey.  If  this  is  the  case,  the  unfortunate  popu- 
lation of  Asia  Minor,  both  Mohammedan  and  Chiis- 
tian,  among  whom  they  will  be  quartered,  are  most 
deeply  to  be  pitied,  as  well  as  the  Government,  whose 
duty  it  will  be  to  re-establish  and  discipline  these 
ruffians  now  rendered  des^^erate  and  doubly  hardened 


CH.  VI.  Tatars  in   Turkey.  155 

by  the   crimes  and  horrors  of  every    description  into 
which  they  have  latel}^  plunged  with  impunity. 

The  best  and  wisest  plan  would  be  to  request 
Russia,  if  she  really  and  earnestly  desires  the  welfare 
of  the  Christians  in  Turkey,  to  take  the  Cii'cassians 
back  and  reinstate  them  in  their  native  land.  Should 
this  be  impracticable,  the  Turkish  Government  would 
do  well  to  send  them  to  colonise  some  of  the  fertile 
but  waste  lands  in  the  heart  of  A.sia  Minor,  in  the 
vicinity  of  half-savage  tribes  like  themselves,  in  whom 
they  might  find  their  match,  and  cease  to  become 
a  perpetual  som'ce  of  trouble  and  injury  both  to  the 
Government  and  its  peaceful  subjects. 

The  migration  of  the  Tatars  into  Turkey  preceded 
that  of  the  Circassians  by  half  a  centur}-.  When 
their  country  passed  into  the  hands  of  Bussia,  the 
Tatars,  unwilling  to  remain  under  her  dominion,  re- 
moved, at  a  great  sacrifice  of  life  and  property,  into 
Bessarabia,  where,  scarcely  had  they  begun  to  feel 
settled  and  to  forget  tlieii-  wrongs  and  sufferings,  than 
the  Muscovite  eagle  again  clouded  the  horizon,  and 
the  emigrants,  fluttering  at  its  approach  like  a  flock  of 
frightened  birds,  collected  tlieii-  families  and  belong- 
ings, and  took  to  flight.  Weary  and  exhausted,  they 
alighted  on  the  Ottoman  soil,  and  settled  in  the 
Dobrudcha.  They  were  a  quiet  and  industrious 
people,  and  before  long,  through  toil    and  exertion, 


156  The  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  i. 

they  mude  tliemselvcs  liomes,  and  peopled  the  Do- 
brudcha  with  theii"  increasing  numbers.  Some  of  the 
Tatar  princes  migrated  with  their  subjects,  and  took  up 
theii-  abode  in  the  vicinit}-  of  Zaghra,  where  they  re- 
tained their  title  of  Sultanlar,  or  "the  princes."  They 
became  in  time  wealthy  landowners,  but,  unlike  their 
less  exalted  brethren,  they  were  hard,  unjust,  and 
oppressive  masters  to  the  Bulgarian  peasants,  and  by 
their  cruel  treatment  of  these  peojile,  were  among  the 
causes  of  theii-  being  cited  as  rebels  before  the  au- 
thorities. 

A  second  emigration  of  Tatars  took  place  after  the 
Crimean  war,  when  these  unfortunate  people,  in  a 
similar  plight  to  the  Cii'cassians,  came  to  join  their 
kinsmen  in  the  Dobrudcha  and  other  parts  of  Euro- 
pean Turkey.  They  were  poor,  and  for  the  most  part 
destitute  of  every  requisite  of  life.  The  Turkish 
Government  did  its  best  to  help  them  by  giving  grants 
of  land,  etc.,  but  those  who .  settled  as  agricultmists 
were  imfortunate,  for  a  series  of  bad  seasons  crushed 
their  first  efforts,  and,  unassisted  by  further  relief, 
they  remained  in  a  stationary  condition  of  poverty, 
notwithstanding  many  praiseworthy  efforts  to  better 
their  condition.  Those  who  settled  in  towns  fared 
better ;  all  who  were  acquainted  with  some  handicraft 
at  once  set  to  work  and  executed  their  different  branches 
of  industry  with  so  much  activity,  neatness,  and  honesty, 
that  they  soon  reached  prosperity  and  comfort. 


CH.  VI.  Tatm'  Artisans,  157 

Their  religion  is  Mohanimedan,  but  they  are  by  no 
means  strict  or  fanatical.  Their  women  do  not  cover 
their  faces  when  among  their  own  community,  but 
when  abroad  are  veiled  lilce  the  Turkish  women.  They 
are  verj"  thrifty  in  their  habits,  and  some  are  x)rett3^  and 
sweet-looking,  but  as  a  rule  they  are  the  dirtiest  subjects 
in  the  Sultan's  dominions.  Their  uncleanliness  with 
regard  to  dress,  dv>rellings,  and  food  is  so  great  as  to 
shock  and  horrify  the  Turks,  who  certainly  have  that 
virtue  which  is  said  to  come  next  to  godliness. 

The  principal  ingredient  in  their  cooker}^  seems  to 
be  tallow  :  as  candlemakers  they  are  greatl}^  superior 
to  the  natives,  and  the  preference  given  to  this 
article  of  their  manufacture  has  induced  them  to 
take  the  principal  portion  of  this  branch  of  industry 
into  their  hands. 

AVlien  a  colony  settled  in  the  town  of  A ,  one  of 

my  friends  took  a  great  interest  in  the  efforts  made  by 
these  estimable  artisans  to  earn  a  livelihood  as  shoe- 
makers, tailors,  tallow-chandlers,  etc.  Some  opened 
small  shops  for  the  sale  of  different  articles,  while 
those  who  had  no  distinct  calling  or  possessed  no 
capital  became  wood-cutters,  or  hawkers  of  vegetables, 
fruits,  etc.  In  this  business,  however,  they  met  with 
shrewd  and  knowmg  professionals — the  Jews,  who 
were  far  more  able  and  practised  hands  at  it,  and  at 
first  gave  very  little  chance  to  the  poor  Tatars.  It 
became  a  race  between  Jew  and  Tatar  who  should  get 


158  The  People  of  Turkey.  i>t.  i. 

up  earliest  in  the  morning  and  go  furthest  to  meet  the 
peasants  bringing  their  produce  to  market.  In  this  the 
Tatar  was  most  successful,  as  he  was  the  better  walker 
of  the  two,  and  less  afraid  than  the  Jew  of  venturing 
some  distance  from  the  town;  but  the  latter  contented 
himself  Avitli  the  reflection  that  there  are  many  roads 
that  lead  to  the  same  goal,  and  many  ways  of 
making  j)rofit  Avhich  are  not  dreamt  of  in  Tatar 
philosophy. 

The  Gipsies  in  Turkey,  numbering  about  200,000 
souls,  profess   outwardly  Mohammedanism,  but  keep 
so  few  of  its  tenets  that  the  true  believers,  holding 
them  in   execration,    deny    their    right    to    worship 
in    the    mosques    or   bury    their   dead  in   the   same 
cemetery.    Although  not  persecuted,  the  antij^athy  and 
disdain  felt    for   them    evinces  itself  in   many  ways, 
and   appears    to   be    founded   upon  a  strange  legend 
current  in  the  country.       This  legend  says  that  when 
the  gipsy  nation  were  driven  out  of  their  country  and 
arrived  at  Mela-an,  they  constructed  a  wonderful  ma- 
chine, to  which  a  wheel  was  attached.  Nobody  apjDcared 
able  to  turn  this  wheel  till  in  the  midst  of  their  vain 
efforts  some  evil  spirit  presented  himself  under  the 
disguise  of    a  sage  and  informed   the    chief  (whose 
name  was  Chen)  that  the  wheel  would  be  made   to 
turn  only  when  he  had  married  his  sister  Guin.     The 
chief  accepted  the  advice,  the  wheel  turned  round,  and 


CH.  vr.  Gipsy  Legend.  159 

the  name  of  the  tribe  after  this  incident  became  that 
of  the  combined  names  of  the  brother  and  sister, 
Chenguin,  the  appellation  of  all  the  gipsies  of  Turkey 
at  the  present  day. 

This  unnatural  marriage,  coming  to  the  knowledge 
of  one  of  the  Moslem  saints,  was  forthwith,  together 
with  the  whole  tribe,  soundly  cursed  ;  they  were  placed 
beyond  the  pale  of  manldnd,  and  sent  out  of  the 
country  under  the  follo^\^ng  malediction  : — "  May  you 
never  more  enter  or  belong  to  the  sevent3'-seven  and  a 
half  races  that  people  the  earth,  but  as  outcasts  be 
scattered  to  the  four  corners  of  the  earth,  homeless, 
wretched,  and  poor  ;  ever  wandering  and  toiling,  never 
realising  wealth,  enjoying  the  fruits  of  your  labour,  or 
acquiring  the  esteem  of  mankind  !  "  * 

I  have  related  this  legend  because  it  represents  in  a 
very  striking  manner  the  condition  of  the  gipsies  of 
Turkey  as  well  as  the  belief  placed  in  it  by  people 
of  all  creeds,  who^  not  oul}^  put  them  beyond  the 
pale  of  humankind,  but  also  deny  to  them  what 
would  be  granted  to  animals — their  alms.  Last 
year  during  the  Ramazan,  a  popular  Hodja,  preaching 
on  charity  to  a  large  congregation  of  Mohammedans, 
thus  addressed  them — "  O  true  beHevers,  open  your 
purses  every  one  of  you,  and  give  largely  to  the  poor 

*  Turkish  ethnology  divides  the  human  race  into  seventy-seven- 
and-a-half  nations,  the  Jews  representing  the  half,  and  the  Gipsies 
being  entirely  excluded.  This  is  clearly  an  improvement  upon  Mo- 
hammed's estimate  of  the  number  of  different  sects  in  Islam,  etc. 


i6o  The  People  of  T^trkey.  i't.  i, 

and  needy  !  Refuse  not  cliaritj^  either  to  Mohammedans 
or  Christians,  for  they  are  separated  from  us  only  by 
the  thickness  of  the  sldn  of  an  onion  ,  but  give  none 
to  the  Chenguins,  lest  part  of  the  curse  that  rests 
upon  their  heads  should  fall  upon  yours  !  " 

Mohammedanism  and  the  Christian  rites  also  prac- 
tised by  a  few  of  the  gipsies  can  only  be  a  mask  to 
hide  the  heathen  superstition  handed  down  among 
them  from  generation  to  generation,  together  with 
their  native  language,  and  some  other  observances, 
such  as  keeping  a  fire  continually  burning  in  theu* 
camp.  On  the  first  of  May  all  go  in  a  body  to 
the  seacoast  or  the  banks  of  a  river,  where  they 
throw  water  three  times  on  their  temples,  invoking 
the  invisible  rjenii  loci  to  grant  their  special  wishes. 

Another  custom,  observed  with  equal  constancy,  is 
that  of  annually  drinldng  some  potion,  the  secret  of 
whose  preparation  is  known  only  to  the  oldest  and 
'  wisest  of  the  tribe.  This  draught  is  partaken  of  by 
the  whole  community  as  a  charm  or  preventive 
against  snake  bites.  It  is  certam  that,  owing  to  some 
agency,  the  gipsies  can  catch  snakes  and  handle  them 
with  the  greatest  impunit}',  but  are  never  known  to  kill 
or  hurt  these  animals. 

The  habits  of  these  i^eople  are  essentially  nomadic. 
Sultan  Mm-ad  IV.  tried  to  check  their  rovmg  disposi- 
tion by  ordering  that  they  should  be  permanently 
settled  m  the  vicinity  of   the  Balkans,   and  obliged 


CH.  VI.  Classes  of  Gipsies.  1 6 1 

to  live  a  regular  life ;  but  disregarding  the  imperial 
decree,  they  dispersed  all  over  the  country,  now 
pitching  their  tents  in  one  place  and  now  in  another, 
lilve  evil  spirits  bent  on  mischief,  or  birds  of  prey 
ready  to  jjounce  upon  any  game  that  offers  itself. 
Their  pilfering  propensities  are  entirely  directed  to 
supplying  the  common  wants  of  nature  ;  they  never 
grow  rich  on  their  i)lunder. 

The  tribe  is  divided  into  two  classes — those  who 
live  in   the  towns  for  short  periods,   and  those,  the 
wildest   and    vilest,  who  wander  about  all  the   year 
round  ;  during  the  summer  pitching  their  tents  in  the 
open  country  or  on  the  road  side,  men,  women,  and 
children  all  huddled  together  under  the  tattered  rags 
that  form  their  only  shelter.      The  men  and  women 
are  miserably  clad,  and  the  children  walk  about    in 
their  original  nakedness.  The  Chenguins  are  muscular, 
thin,    and  of  middle   size ;    with    dark    skins,  bright 
sparkling  eyes,  low  undeveloped  brows,  and  weU  de- 
fined nose,  wide  at  the  nostril ;  the  lower  part  of  the 
face  is  ill-formed  and  sensual.     When  quite  young, 
some   of  the  women  are  very  pretty  and  much  ap- 
preciated   by   the    Turkish    community    as    dancing 
girls,   in  which  calling    their    utter  want  of    decency 
and  morality  makes  them  adepts.      When  the  gipsy 
woman  is  advanced   in   years   she   becomes  perfectly 
hideous ;    her  brown  skin  shrivels  up  through  priva- 
tion  and   exposure,   her  body   gets    thm    and  ema- 

voL.  I.  y~ 


1 62  The  People  of  Turkey.  vx.  i, 

ciated,  and  her  uncombed  elf  locks,  half  conceal- 
ing her  features,  give  her  the  appearance  of  a  witch. 
Tlie  cunning  creature,  aware  of  the  eft'ect  she  pro- 
duces, makes  capital  out  of  it,  by  impressing  the  cre- 
dulous with  a  belief  in  her  uncanny  powers  of  predicting 
the  future,  castmg  or  removing  the  evil  eye,  or  other 
magic  spells,  invoking  benefits  or  bringing  evil  upon 
those  who  refuse  charity  or  provoke  her  anger;  thus 
extorting  from  fear  the  alms  that  pity  refused. 

In  winter  they  quarter  themselves  in  the  vicinity  of 
towns  or  villages,  where  they  have  a  better  chance  of 
carrying  on  their  trade  of  petty  thieving.  The  nuisance 
they  become  to  a  neighbourhood  is  increased  by  the 
hopelessness  of  obtaining  any  recover}'-  of  j)roperty 
stolen  by  them.  The  gipsy  is  by  no  means  particular 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  object  he  covets,  but  will 
condescendingly  possess  hhnself  of  an  old  horse  found 
conveniently  in  his  neighbourhood,  or  venture  further 
and  lay  hands  on  anything  from  a  useful  article  of 
dress  to  a  stray  ox. 

The  following  incidents  that  came  under  m^^  personal 
observation   were    attributed    to    an    encampment     of 

gipsies  in  the  vicinit}^  of  the  town  of  M ,  and  will 

give  an  idea  how  these  people,  called  by  the  pea- 
sants Taoukjis,  set  about  business,  and  the  precau- 
tions they  take  to  avoid  detection  and  escape  punish- 
ment. 

In  our  stable  were  thi-ee  fine  and  valuable  horses. 


CH.  VI.  Gipsy   TJiefts.  163 

much  admu-eil  in  tlie  town,  which  had  evidently 
awakened  the  cupidity  of  some  gipsies  encamped 
opposite  the  house  on  the  other  side  of  the  river. 
On  one  occasion,  when  the  two  best  were  away  from 
home  together  with  the  groom,  the  thii'd  liorse  dis- 
appeared during  the  night.  In  the  morning  I  sent  to 
give  notice  of  the  occurrence  to  the  sub-governor  and 
request  his  aid  in  discovering  the  thief  or  thieves. 
This  functionary,  a  kind  and  civil  man,  at  once  called 
upon  me  and  gave  me  the  assurance  that  the  horse 
would  be  recovered,  as  none  but  the  gipsies  encamped 
opposite  could  have  stolen  it.  The  pohce  were  sent 
to  the  camp  to  request  about  a  dozen  to  come  to  the 
Konak  to  answer  for  the  robbery. 

On  arriATiig,  the  gipsies  were  placed  under  close 
examination  by  the  Kaimakam  and  Medjliss  ;  they 
naturally  denied  all  knowledge  of  the  robbery  and 
protested  against  the  accusation.  Finding  them 
obstinate,  the  Kaimakam  ordered  them  to  be  placed 
under  the  pressure  of  the  whip,  but  this  appearing  to 
produce  no  effect,  made  the  governor  suspect  that 
some  trick  had  been  resorted  to,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  culprits  feeling  the  smart  of  the  punishment  they 
had  anticipated.  They  were  ordered  to  undress,  upon 
which,  looking  very  crestfallen,  they  began  to  pray 
for  mercy,  but  their  prayers  were  soon  drowned  in  the 
sounds  of  general  hilarity  that  followed  the  discovery 
of  the   successive    layers  of  sheepskin  in  which  they 

M    2 


1 64  The  People  of  Tttrkey.  w.  i. 

liad  taken  the  precaution  of  enveloj)ing  their  bodies. 
The  first  few  blows  that  fell  upon  their  now  un- 
protected backs,  drew  forth  screams  of  *'  Aman^ 
Effendi !  "  followed  by  sundry  revelations  on  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  horse.  "Last  night,"  said  one,  "  it 
came  quite  unexpectedly  into  our  camp  ;  we  tried  to 
secure  it  but  it  escaped  again,  we  will  endeavour  to 
find  and  bring  it  back,  but,  oh,  Aman  !  Eifendi !  beat 
us  no  more  !  we  will  paA'  the  value  of  the  horse  for 
the  honour  of  the  Chenguin  tribe  !  "  When  these 
proceedings  came  to  my  knowledge,  I  begged  the 
Kaimakam  not  to  be  too  hard  on  the  poor  rogues, 
but  s'^t  them  free  after  the  severe  punishment  the}' 
had  received.  I  may  add  that  the  horse  was  never 
found. 

On  the  shapeless,  ill-paved,  mud-pooled  space 
which  usually  occupies  the  centre  of  small  Turkish 
towns,  the  peasants  collect  from  all  parts  of  the 
suiTounding  countrj'  with  their  carts  and  beasts  of 
burden,  laden  with  goods  for  sale  or  barter.  On 
one  occasion  an  industrious  Bulgarian  cloth-weaver 
took  up  his  habitual  post  at  the  corner  of  a  narrow 
street,  where  he  exhibited  his  stock  of  goods  and 
invited  purchasers.  Shortly  afterwards,  a  ragged, 
thievish-looking  Chenguin,  with  a  couple  of  sieves  of 
his  own  manufacture,  came  and  seated  himself  oppo- 
site, apparently  with  the  object  of  selling  liis  stock  in 
trade.     No  customer  appeared,  and  the  gipsy  began  to 


CH.  VI.  Taotikjis.  1 65 

show  signs  of  weariness  and  sleepiness ;    he  yawned 
desperate^,  stretched  his  limbs,  looked  at  his  neigh- 
bour, yawned  again  and  again,  until  he  succeeded  in  in- 
fecting him  with  a  sympathetic  drowsiness.     Gradually 
passing  into  the  second  stage  of  somnolence,  he  closed 
his  ej'es  and  nodded.      The  Bidgariau  following  his 
example,  was  soon  fast  asleep,  and  the  gips}^,  quickly 
springing  to  his  feet,  seized  a  fine  piece  of  shayak,  and 
walked  away  with  it.     The   Bulgarian  unsuspectingly 
slept  on  until  roused  by  his  head  coming  in  contact 
with  the  wall,  against  which  he  was  leaning ;    his  be- 
wildered gaze  instmctively  turned  to  the  spot  which 
the  other  slumberer  had  occupied,  and,  finding  that  it 
was  empty,  he  looked  at  his  merchandise  and  disco- 
vered that  his  best  piece  of  cloth  had  disappeared  also. 
Much  troubled,  he  packed  up  the  rest  of  his  goods  and 
proceeded  to  the  house  of  the  Cliorbadji,  who  advised 
him  to  find  the  gipsy  and  point  him  out  to  the  police, 
who  might  succeed  in  recovering  his  property.     To 
this  he  responded,   "  All  the  gipsies  have  the  same 
wild,  tattered,  and  cunning  appearance,  and  follow  the 
trade  of  iao«iy?-s;  if  I  call  the  attention  of  the  police  to 
my  case,  I  shall  be  made  responsible  for  the  imprison- 
ment of  the  whole  band,  and  incur  expenses  greater 
than  the  value  of  my  cloth.    I  must  therefore  forego  it ; 
but  never  again  shall  this  stupitl  '  Bulgarski  glava '  be 
outdone  by  gipsy  cunning !  " 

The  other   callings  followed  by  the  Chenguins  arc 


1 66  The  People  of  Turkey.  vw  i, 

those  of  tinkers,  blacksmiths,  leaders  of  hears  and 
monkeys,  and  musicians  of  a  primitive  kind.  The 
women  keep  np  the  Nautcli  dance  of  the  East  with  an 
excruciating  kind  of  accompaniment,  consisting  of  a 
drum,  bagpipe,  tambourine,  and  pipe,  with  which  they 
make  the  round  of  the  towns  and  villages  on  feast 
days,  when  they  are  hired  by  the  people,  and  dance 
and  shout  to  their  hearts'  content. 

The  gipsies  are  idle,  false,  and  treacherous.  They 
have  none  of  the  manly  virtues  ;  and  on  account  of 
their  known  coAvardice,  they  were  never  pressed  into 
militarj'  service  by  the  Turks  until  last  year,  when 
a  certain  number  of  those  settled  in  towns  and  villages 
were  sent  off  as  recruits.  It  was  a  picture  worth  see- 
ing, when  a  band  of  these  wild  creatures  was  embarked 

at  the  town  of  S .     Guarded  by  a  detachment  of 

soldiers  headed  by  a  drum  and  clarionet,  and  followed 
by  the  whole  tribe  of  old  men,  women,  and  children, 
screaming,  crying,  and  dragging  theu*  rags  after  them, 
these  doubtful  warriors  marched  through  the  town.  I 
asked  an  old  crone  how  it  was  that  the  Chenguins 
had  to  go  to  war  ?  "God  knows,"  Avas  her  reply  ;  "it 
is  the  Sultan's  command  and  must  be  obeyed." 

The  hatred  shown  by  the  Turks  to  the  invaders  of 
their  country  was  so  gi'eat,  and  their  patriotism  and 
bravery  in  defending  her  so  conspicuous,  that  even 
this  degenerate  race  became  infected  with  a  certain 
degree  of  the  same  devotion,  and  evinced  a  desire  to 


cir.  VI.  Toivn  Gipsies.  167 

go  and  fight  for  Allah  and  the  Sultan,  although  at  tlie 
last  moment  their  natural  cowardice  proved  too  strong 
for  them.  Some  mutilated  their  hands,  others  feigned 
sickness  or  insanity  as  an  excuse  for  remaining  be- 
hind, whilst  those  who  actually  reached  the  seat  of 
war  gave  great  trouble  to  their  officers,  did  no  service 
whatever,  and  deserted  whenever  a  chance  presented 
itself. 

The  class  of  gipsies  living  in  towns  is  slightly  better 
and  more  respectable  as  a  community.  They  gene- 
rally occupy  hovels  built  round  a  court,  in  which  they 
take  shelter  during  the  night ;  but  during  the  day, 
in  winter  or  summer,  they  live  out  of  doors.  A  great 
part  of  their  time  is  spent  lounging  about  the  court, 
hammering  at  their  forges,  smoking  or  quarrelling, 
while  the  girls  listlessly  parade  the  streets,  and  the 
children  beg  or  fall  into  any  mischief  that  pre- 
sents itself.  They  are  never  sent  to  school,  and  I  do 
not  think  there  is  a  single  person  of  either  sex  who  is 
able  to  write  a  word  of  any  language. 

The  gipsies  settled  in  the  villages  take  to  field  work 
as  far  as  their  roving  habits  and  thievish  propensities 
allow  them.  These  are  either  chiftjis,  who  work 
regularly,  or  ailikjis,  who  do  odd  jobs.  They  present 
a  strong  contrast  to  the  rest  of  the  rural  population 
in  their  thriftlessness  and  want  of  care  for  the  mor- 
row. They  are  so  careless  of  health  that  an  aged 
gipsy  is  rarely  met  with.     As  labourers  they  are  very 


1 68  The  People  of  Ttirkey.  rx.  i. 

unsatisfactory,  and  require  much  supervision  from  tlieir 
employers.  No  gipsy  ever  becomes  wealthy  or  respect- 
able :  as  a  class  they  are  always  in  debt. 

The  whole  tribe  is  a  curious  mixture  of  the  human 
and  the  animal :  it  is  endowed  with  the  scent  of  the 
dog,  the  cunning  of  the  monkey,  and  the  form 
and  vices,  but  none  of  the  virtues  apparently,  of 
mankind. 


PAET   II. 

LANDS    AND     DWELLINGS. 


PAKT    II. 

LANDS    AND    DWELLINGS. 
CHAPTER  VII. 

TENURE    OF    LAND. 

Three  Classes  of  Lands  in  Turkey —  Vakonf  Lands,  their  Origin  and 
Growth — Turkish  Equivalent  of  Mortmain — Privileges  of  Tenants 
on  Vakouf  Land — Maladministration — Corruption  of  Charity 
Agents  and  Government  Inspectors — General  System  of  Em- 
bezzlement—  Sultan  Mahmoud's  Attempted  Eeform  —  Insuffi- 
ciency of  Vakouf  Revenues  as  administered  ;  Suj^plemented  by 
State — General  Decay  of  Vakouf  Property,  Mosques,  Medresses, 
and  Imarets — Misapplication  of  Vakouf  Funds  intended  for  the 
Support  of  the  Public  Water- Supply— i)/in'e  Lands,  Government 
Grants,  Military  Proprietors,  Growth  of  a  Feudal  System — 
Miserable  Condition  of  the  Eayahs — Anxiety  of  the  Porte— De- 
struction of  the  Feudal  System  by  Mahmoud  and  Abdul-Medjid 
—  Reduction  of  the  Bosnian  and  Albanian  Beys — Present  Condi- 
tion of  the  Country  Beys — Mirie  Lands  reclaimed  from  the 
Waste — Title-Insi)ectors — A  Waste-Land  Abuse — Similar  Diffi- 
culties in  Connection  with  Ordinary  Mirie  Tenure — Mulk  or 
Freehold  Lands— Their  Small  Extent— Difficulty  of  Establish- 
ing Safe  Titles — Descent  and  Transfer  of  Land — Tenure  of 
Land  by  Christians  and  by  Foreign  Subjects— Commons  and 
Forests — The  Inspectors  of  the  Forest  Department. 

Regarded  from  a  conveyancer's  point  of  view,  land 
in  Turkey  is  of  three  kinds  :  mcvkonfr  (or  vahouf), 
"  church  "  property  ;  mir'iv,  crown  property  ;  and  mulk 
or  memlouke,  freehokl. 


172  TJlc  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  u. 


1.  Vakoiif  lauds  are  those  set  aside  for  the  support 
of  the  religious  establishments,  the  mosques,  medresses 
(or  mosque-colleges)  and  other  religious  schools,  and 
the  imarets  or  institutions  for  public  almsgiving.  The 
appropriation  of  a  just  part  of  a  man's  wealth  for  pur- 
poses of  religion  and  charity  is  one  of  the  most  con- 
stantly reiterated  principles  of  Islam,  and,  to  the 
credit  of  Moslems  be  it  said,  it  is  a  principle  very 
regularly  reduced  to  practice.  It  is  not  surprismg, 
therefore,  that  on  the  conquest  of  European  Turkey  a 
large  share  of  land  was  set  apart  "for  God."  But 
tliis  original  grant  was  not  the  only  source  of  the  pre- 
sent large  extent  of  vakouf  lands.  Private  munificence 
has  constantly  added  to  the  original  foundation.  The 
piety  of  some  Moslems,  and  the  vain-glory  of  others, 
has  ever  been  displa3^ed  in  the  erection  and  endow- 
ment of  mosques,  with  their  attendant  medresses  and 
imarets.  In  the  one  case  it  was  a  sure  ke}'  to  heaven  ; 
in  the  other,  it  was  the  best  way  to  get  the  praises  of 
men  of  one's  own  generation  and  the  admiration  of 
posterity.  Formerly  ordinary  people  used  frequently 
to  indulge  in  this  architectural  luxury ;  but,  during 
the  present  century,  only  Sultans  and  Grand  Vizirs 
have  found  the  i)ractice  convenient. 

Besides  the  original  grant  and  the  private  additions 
which  each  century  contributed,  vakouf  lands  have 
been  gTeatly  increased  from  a  third  source.  The 
2)eople  of  Turkey  seem  to  have  duly  appreciated  those 


cu.  VII.  Vakoiif  Lanas.  173 

privileges  agninst  which  our  own  Mortmain  laws  were 
directed.  The  parallel  is  not  indeed  strictly  accurate, 
but  there  are  strong  points  of  resemblance.  A  Mos- 
lem (or,  for  that  matter,  a  Christian)  sells  his  land  to 
a  mosque  for  about  one-tenth  of  its  real  value.  The 
land  is  now  the  property  of  the  mosque,  but  the  seller 
has  the  right  of  lease,  and  ma}'  retain  his  tenanc}'  on 
pa3'ment  of  a  fixed  rent.  During  his  life  he  may  sell 
the  lease,  or  at  his  death  it  passes  on  to  his  heirs  ;  but 
in  default  of  direct  descendants  the  lease  reverts  abso- 
lutely to  the  mosque.*  By  this  transaction  both 
parties  are  the  gainers,  and  onl}'  the  Government  and 
its  corrupt  officials  the  losers. 

The  mosque  receives  a  large  interest  for  a  compara- 
tively trifling  expenditure  of  capital ;  and  has  besides 
the  reversion  in  the  event  of  default  of  heirs.  The 
tenant,  though  he  has  to  pay  a  rent  where  formerly  he 
paid  none,  is  not  burdened  by  this  slight  charge,  and 
sets  against  it  the  immense  privileges  he  has  acquired : 
for,  as  a  tenant  on  vakouf  land — that  is,  holding 
direct  of  Allah — he  pays  no  taxes  ;  he  is  safe  from 
confiscation  by  the  Government,  extortion  from  its 
officials,  and  i^ersecution  from  private  creditors.  It  is 
the  most  profitable  and  secui'e  tenure  to  be  met  with 
in  Turkey,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  congratulation  that 
the   mosque   authorities  place  so  high  a  value   upon 

*  In  Aii.^ust,   187"),  the  law  of  inheritance  on  vakouf  lands  \vp„s 
modiiied  and  improved. 


1 74  The  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  h. 

money,  tliat  they  are  willing  to  accei^t  it  even  from 
dogs  of  Christians  Avho  wish  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
protection  atforded  \>^  vakouf  leasehold. 

No  official  report  of  the  extent  of  the  vakouf  lands 
has,  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  heen  pubUshed ;  but  it  is 
easy  to  understand  that  their  extent  and  value  must 
be  very  great.  It  is  even  estimated  at  two-thii*ds  of 
the  whole  land  of  Turkey.  It  is  therefore  remarkable 
that  the  revenues  derived  from  them  do  not  nearly 
suffice  for  the  purposes  for  which  they  were  intended. 
The  expense  of  maintaining  the  services  of  the 
mosques  and  of  keeping  up  the  extremely  economical 
system  of  religious  education  would  not  seem  to  be 
excessive,  though  the  charitable  imarets  would  of  coiu'se 
require  considerable  support.  But  these  are  not  the 
real  reasons  why  these  rich  revenues  are  not  sufficient. 
One  reason  is,  that  they  are  expected  to  maintain  a 
large  class  of  Ulema,  whose  numbers  are  altogether 
disproportionate  to  the  educational  results  they  pro- 
duce. The  other  and  far  more  disastrous  cause  is 
that  the  revenues  are  corruptly  admmistered. 

At  first  the  management  of  the  funds  lay  in  the 
hands  of  agents  appointed  by  the  pious  fomiders. 
When  an  agent  died,  his  successor  was  named  by  the 
Eoumeli  Kadisi  (or  Anadoli  Kadisi  if  in  Asiatic 
Turkey).  The  agents  were  under  the  supervision  of 
inspectors,  whose  business  it  was  to  verify  the  mosque 
accounts.     These  inspectorships  were  generally  given 


CH.  VII.  MahmoucTs  Reforms.  1 75 


to  high  functionaries  of  the  Porte,  and  so  lucrative 
were  they,  that  they  excited  keen  competition  (in  the 
Turkish  sense),  and  eventually  came  to  he  regarded 
as  the  fixed  ai)pendages  of  certain  offices.  It  may 
easily  be  imagined  that  between  the  agents  and  the 
inspectors  there  was  not  much  of  the  vakouf  reve- 
nues left  for  the  right  purposes.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
most  of  the  money  found  its  way  into  the  pockets  of 
the  inspectors  of  the  Sublime  Porte. 

Among  the  many  schemes  that  engaged  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Reformer-Sultan  Mahmoud  there  was  of 
course  a  place  for  vakouf  reform.  He  wished  to  amal- 
gamate the  vakouf  lands  with  the  mirie  or  crown  lands, 
but  had  not  the  boldness  necessary  to  the  carrying  out 
of  so  revolutionary  a  measure.  He  contented  himself 
with  clearing  away  some  of  tlie  more  obvious  abuses 
of  the  administration  of  vakoufs,  and  appointed  a  direc- 
tor with  the  rank  of  Minister,  to  see  to  the  proper 
management  of  the  property.  Still,  however,  the  reve- 
nues did  not  prove  sufficient.  The  annual  budget  of 
vakouf  returns  reached  a  total  of  20,000,000  piastres  ; 
yet  in  1863  it  had  to  be  supplemented  by  another 
20,000,000  piastres  from  the  Treasury,  and  is  ever  in 
need  of  similar  assistance.  The  funds  are  still  mis- 
applied ;  and,  as  the  result,  the  mosques  and  medresses 
have  fallen  more  and  more  into  ruin  and  decay ;  the 
imarets  are  become  instruments  of  a  merely  nominal 
-almsgiving  ;  and  every  charitable  or  religious  inten- 


1 76  The  People  of  Turkey.  w.  n. 

tion  of  the   pious   founders  is    daily   trodden   under 
foot. 

Among  the  minor  objects  of  vakouf  endowments  are 
the  construction  and  maintenance  in  repair  of  aque- 
ducts and  road  fountains.  I  have  often  witnessed  with 
regret  the  manner  in  which  the  trust  is  abused  by  its 
holders.  In  most  towns  the  principal  water  supply  is- 
endowed  by  vakoufs,  the  revenues  of  which  were  in- 
tended to  defray  all  expenses  connected  with  keeping^ 
the  channels  and  fountains  in  repair.  In  three  cases 
out  of  four  these  funds  are  misapplied.  At  Salonika, 
for  instance,  the  water  supply  is  richly  endowed,  and 
the  town  ought  clearly  to  be  well  furnished  with  water. 
Instead  of  this,  a  great  number  of  the  fountains  are 
di'ied  up,  and  a  serious  waste  of  water  is  caused  by  the 
neglect  of  the  water  pipes.  It  is  painful  to  see  the 
crowd  of  miserable  Jewish  children  waiting  for  hours 
round  the  dribbling  fountain  mider  a  burning  summer 
sun,  or  pierced  with  the  biting  winter  winds,  till  they 
get  a  chance  of  filling  their  pitchers — too  often  only  to 
get  them  broken  in  the  battle  that  immediately  ensues. 
In  summer,  when  the  want  of  water  is  most  severely 
felt,  many  people  do  not  scruple  to  dig  down  to  the 
water  pipes  in  some  deserted  street,  stop  the  current 
that  leads  to  the  fountain,  and  thus  obtain  the  supply 
they  need.  In  former  times  fountains  were  erected 
on  all  the  main  roads  and  in  every  town  and  village  ; 
but  most  of  them  are  now  dried  up  or  fallen  to  ruin. 


cii.  vji.  Crown-Lands.  ij'j 

Some  of  those  that  remain  are  of  solid  marble,  with  a 
carved  frontage  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  donor, 
the  date  of  erection,  and  some  verses  from  the  Koran. 
Some  are  in  the  form  of  basins,  with  jets  plajdng  in 
them,  sheltered  sometimes  by  little  Idosks,  and  always 
shaded  by  line  old  trees.  The  thirsty  traveller  and  his 
beast  are  all  the  more  grateful  Avhen  they  do  find  a 
fountain  with  water  running,  because  the  chances  are 
so  overwhelmingly  against  such  good  luck — thanks  to 
the  vakouf  administrators,  who  from  this  point  of 
view  deserve  credit  for  intensifying  the  virtue  of 
gratitude. 

2.  The  Mine  or  crown-lands  include  the  private 
demesnes  of  the  Sultan  and  the  royal  family,  the 
lands  reserved  for  the  partial  support  of  the  adminis- 
tration, the  waste  lands,  together  with  an  enormous 
extent  of  land  originally  granted  on  condition  of  mili- 
tary service  to  the  most  zealous  supporters  of  the 
Sultan,  with  a  view  to  retaining  their  fidelit}^  and 
assuring  the  supremacy  of  the  Government  over  the 
native  princes.  The  country  was  thus  given  over  to 
the  power  and  licence  of  an  army  of  occupation.  It 
was  divided  into  sandjaks  governed  by  Pashas,  Beys, 
and  Beglerbejs.  Those  last-named  were  the  adminis- 
trators of  the  sandjaks.  Their  duty  it  was  to  collect 
the  taxes  and  furnish  the  contingents  of  troops  to  the 
Imperial  army.  The  favovired  officers  of  the  Porte 
received  immense  grants   of  land  in  return  for  their 

VOL.    I.  If 


i/S  The  People  of  Turkey.  vt.  n. 

zeal :  tliej''  were  exempt  from  taxation,  and  only  re- 
quired to  find  soldiers  for  the  wars  of  the  Porte. 
Excluding  vakouf  lands,  the  greater  jiart  of  Turkey- 
was  thus  placed  on  a  sort  of  feudal  tenxu-e,  the  pro- 
prietor holding  of  the  crown  by  military  service.  All 
the  evil  effects  of  the  system  soon  developed  them- 
selves. 

The  lands  of  these  militnr}^  proprietors  were  of 
course  chiefly  tilled  by  the  rayahs,  who  had  formerly 
held  them  in  freehold.  Although  these  underhold- 
ings  were  supposed,  like  all  mirie  lands,  to  be  regis- 
tered, and  thus  to  enjoy  the  advantage  of  a  legally 
fixed  rent,  they  were  yet  subject  to  the  endless 
extortions  invariably  associated  with  the  notion  of 
Tui'kisli  officials.  Especially  heavily  did  this  system 
press  upon  the  Christian  tenants  of  the  military  land- 
owners. In  principle  the  conduct  of  the  Turks  to 
their  Christian  subjects  was  not  greatly  blameable  ;  it 
was  in  practice,  as  usual,  that  the  grievances  arose. 
The  Christian  communities  were  managed  by  their 
Kodja-Bashi,  or  headman,  who  had  to  collect  the  tribute, 
proportioning  it  to  the  means  of  each  individual ;  and 
to  gather  the  kharadj  or  poll-tax,  and  other  impositions. 
A  community  was  allowed  to  compound  for  each  or 
all  its  taxes  by  a  fixed  sum.  Thus  far  all  ai:»pears 
surprisingly  satisfactory.  But  when  the  actual  con- 
dition of  the  Christian  tenants  is  looked  into,  a  very 
different    impression   is    produced.      Their  landlords 


CH.  vii.  Military   Tcmirc.  1 79 

were  ever  devising  some  new  extortion  :  the  taxes 
were  levied  with  ruinous  irreguLarity  ;  fresh  imposi- 
tions were  constantly  being  added ;  and,  in  fine,  their 
state  became  so  intolerable  that  large  numbers  of  them 
deserted  their  faith  (of  which  they  are  generally  highly 
tenacious  in  spite  of  ignorance  and  persecution),  and 
became  Moslems,  and  were  at  once  placed  in  pos- 
session of  the  privileges  of  the  dominant  race.  A 
curious  instance  of  this  conversion  by  necessity  was 
that  of  the  Krichovalis,  a  lawless  race  of  mountaineers 
about  Vodena.  About  the  beginning  of  this  century 
they  found  themselves  unable  longer  to  endure  the 
disabilities  of  their  condition.  They  met  in  solemn 
assembly  in  their  old  church  on  a  great  feast  day, 
and  swore  the  sacred  oath  upon  the  Bible  that  they 
became  Mohammedans  under  protest,  being  com- 
pelled to  abandon  their  faith  in  order  to  escape  the 
intolerable  trammels  of  their  bondage.  The  Bible 
on  which  they  swore,  containing  the  signatures  of  the 
chief  men,  still  exists,  I  am  told,  in  the  keeping  of  the 
Greek  priest. 

The  evils  of  military  tenure  bore  upon  the  Porte 
as  well  as  upon  the  rayahs.  The  Sultans  were  not 
slow  to  note  with  alarm  the  growing  power  of  the  great 
feudatories.  They  endeavoured  to  curtail  their  pri- 
vileges and  to  strengthen  the  hands  of  the  rayahs  and 
attach  this  class  to  themselves.  But  for  a  long  time 
the  efforts  of  the  central  government  Avere  unavailing. 

N  2 


I  So  The  People  of  Turkey.  vr.  n. 

The  militaiy  landowners  made  common  cause  with  the 
Beglerbe^'S,  who  had  by  degrees  acquired  the  supreme 
control  of  their  sandjaks ;  and  these  two  united  in 
defying  the  authority  of  the  sovereign.  A  great 
landed  aristocracy  had  grown  up,  like  the  baronage 
of  England  in  Angevin  times,  and  threatened  the 
very  extinction  of  the  supremacy  of  the  Porte  over  its 
subjects.  A  great  blow  must  be  struck  at  the  country 
Beys :  and  Mahmoud  II.  resolved  to  strike.  He  was 
completely  successful,  and  left  to  his  successor  Abdul- 
Medjid  only  the  task  of  bringing  some  of  the  rebel- 
lious chieftains  to  punishment.  Some  were  beheaded, 
others  banished,  and  all  had  their  property  confiscated. 
Inoffensive  tenants  by  military  service  a'eceived  com- 
pensation :  but  the  system  was  rooted  out,  and  has 
now  ceased  to  exist. 

How  the  great  feudal  landowners  were  crushed  will 
be  understood  from  a  few  examples.  A  short  time 
ago  I  made  the  acquaintance  of  one  of  the  dervish 
sheikhs  who  followed  Ali  Pasha  when  he  was  dis- 
patched by  Abdul-Medjid  to  reduce  the  Bosnian  rebels. 
I  asked  how  the  reduction  was  effected :  and  this 
was  his  account. — Ali  Pasha,  with  a  small  but 
well- organised  army  of  Nizams,  on  approaching  the 
coimtry,  asked  permission  of  the  Bosnians  to  cross 
into  the  Austrian  territory.  The  Bosnians  unsus- 
pectingly granted  leave,  and  we  marched  into  the 
country  and  pitched  our  camp  in  its  very  heart.    After 


cii.  VII.  Fall  of  the  Beys.  i8r 

a  few  daj's  the  Pasha  produced  the  Irade  of  the  Sultan, 
containing  a  demand  for  60,000  recruits  from  the 
Bosnians.  They  refused  to  furnish  them,  and  began 
to  assemble  and  arm.  The  Pasha  did  not  insist 
upon  the  enforcement  of  the  Imperial  order,  but 
opened  negotiations.  He  was  a  wily  man  and 
knew  his  business.  He  managed  with  soft  words 
and  fair  promises  to  entice  all  the  Bosnian  grandees 
into  the  camp,  under  the  pretext  of  holding  a  general 
council.  Having  thus  collected  all  the  influential 
persons  of  the  country  he  put  them  under  arrest  and 
proceeded  to  try  them.  Some  were  beheaded,  and 
Ali  Pasha  with  his  own  hand  struck  down  the  leading 
chief.  The  rest  after  some  further  parley  were  brought 
to  terms,  and  were  then  exiled  and  their  goods  con- 
fiscated. The  60,000  recruits  were  soon  raised,  and 
the  general  marched  triumphantly  back  to  Constan- 
tinople at  their  head. 

The  Albanian  chieftains  were  dealt  with  in  the  same 
way :  Avhen  force  foiled,  treachery  prevailed.  Tlieir 
two  leaders,  Veh-bey  and  Arslan-bey,  were  enticed  by 
a  friendly  invitation  to  Monastir,  where  they  were 
received  with  every  mark  of  consideration  and  kind- 
ness. A  few  days  afterwards  they  and  tlieir  friends 
were  invited  to  a  great  feast  by  Pteshid  Mehemet 
Pasha.  This  was  to  take  place  in  a  kiosk  outside  the 
town  near  the  head-quarters  of  the  regular  troops. 

On  the  appointed  day  Veli-bey  and  Arslan-bey  pro- 


i82  The  People  of  Turkey  n.  n. 

ceeded  to  the  rendezvous  accompanied  by  nearly  all 
their  beys  and  retinue ;  in  all  about  400  men.  The 
Idosk  was  hidden  from  view  b}'  a  turn  in  the  road  till 
they  had  almost  reached  it,  and  it  was  only  on  enter- 
ing the  space  in  front  that  they  perceived  the  troops 
ranged  in  order  of  battle.  A  suspicion  crossed  the 
mind  of  Arslan-be}",  who  said  to  his  companion  in 
Eastern  phrase,  "  We  have  eaten  dirt  !  "  Yeli-bey 
replied,  "It  is  the  regular  way  of  paying  honom-." 
"At  all  events,"  said  Arslan-be}',  with  doubtful 
friendship,  "let  us  change  sides."  This  was  done, 
and  Arslan-bey  found  himself  screened  from  view 
by  the  imposing  figure  of  Veli-bey  and  his  horse. 
They  had  reached  the  centre  of  the  line  when  an 
order  issued  from  the  window  of  the  kiosk,  the  soldiers 
raised  their  pieces,  and  a  mvuxlerous  fire  was  opened 
on  the  ranks  of  the  Albanians,  followed  by  a  bayonet 
charge.  Veli-bey  and  his  horse  fell  pierced  with 
nineteen  balls,  but  Arslan-bey  was  unhurt.  Followed 
by  those  who  had  escaped  the  first  discharge  he  turned 
his  horse  and  took  to  flight ;  but  a  second  fire  reached 
their  flank.  Arslan-bey  again  miraculously  escaped, 
and  owing  to  the  speed  of  his  horse  soon  left  the  j^lace 
of  carnage  at  a  distance.  But  his  flight  had  been 
observed  from  the  kiosk  from  which  the  Grand  Vizir 
had  directed  the  massacre,  and  he  was  pursued :  but 
putting  spurs  to  his  horse  he  urged  it  up  the  pre- 
cipitous side  of  the  hill,  making  for  the  summit  with 


cii.  VII.  The  Beys  of  To-day.  i8 


o 


furious  speed.  The  top  was  almost  readied  when  a 
shower  of  balls  brought  down  man  and  horse ;  and 
they  rolled  doAvn  the  steep  hill-side  to  join  the  bodies 
of  their  fellow-victims  below.  Such  were  the  last 
fatal  blows  aimed  at  the  expiring  feudal  system, — 
exile  and  conliscation  did  the  rest. 

The  once  powerful  Beys,  when  thoroughly  crushed 
and  impoverished,  were  allowed  a  small  income,  and 
after  many  years  of  expatriation  were  finally  permitted 
to  return  to  their  native  districts.  Their  power  is 
completely  gone,  although  their  personal  influence  is 
still  considerable  over  the  populations  among  whom 
they  live,  and  in  the  local  courts  in  which  they  sit. 
It  is  however  of  a  mutinous  nature,  and  seldom  em- 
ployed either  in  facilitating  the  introduction  of  the 
new  measures  attempted  by  the  Government  for  the 
improvement  of  the  administration,  or  in  promoting 
the  general  welfare  of  the  country. 

Some  beys  in  the  interior  still  possess  considerable 
landed  propert}',  but  with  few  exceptions  their  estates 
are  dilapidated  and  heavily  mortgaged ;  while  their 
owners  are  so  deeply  in  debt  to  the  Government,  that 
if  called  to  a  reckoning  under  a  well-regulated  ad- 
ministration they  would  be  ruined  men.  A  few,  how- 
ever, whose  estates  are  in  better  condition,  are  more 
enlightened,  and  take  a  real  interest  in  the  welfare  of 
their  country. 

The  country  contains  extensive  areas  of  mirie  lands 


I  84  The  People  of  Tju'/cey.  i-x.  11. 

reclaimed  from  the  waste,  for  which  of  late  j'eai's  there 
lias  been  a  great  demand  made  b}'  the  peasants,  Avho 
reclaim  portions  of  them  hy  paying  a  small  fee  of  about 
Is.  an  acre.  They  cultivate  or  build  upon  them,  and 
after  paying  tithes  for  the  space  of  twenty  years  get 
the  Tapou  or  title  deed  from  the  Porte  constituting 
them  legal  owners.  But  although  subjected  to  special 
laws  and  restrictions  and  imder  government  super- 
vision, it  is  a  dangerous  speculation,  often  involving 
litigation,  and  liable  to  usurpation. 

Great  abuses  are  occasioned  b}'  the  corrui)tion  of 
the  Tapou  Memours  or  inspectors,  who  within  the  last 
seven  years  have  been  entrusted  with  the  supervision 
and  legislation  of  such  lands,  and  regulate  them  (irre- 
spective of  the  rights  of  Christian  or  Turkish  land- 
holders) in  favour  of  the  highest  bidder.  The  conse- 
quences are  that  many  persons  have  been  dispossessed 
of  their  property',  others  have  had  to  pay  high  prices  to 
retain  it  by  obtaining  Tapous,  whilst  many  are  daily 
being  di'iven  out  of  theu'  lands.  An  example  of  this 
kmd  presented  itself  the  other  day  in  the  local  court 

of  the  town  of  L .     The  claimant  was  a  Turkish 

Hanoiim ;  the  disputants  Tm-kish  and  Christian  peas- 
ants. The  lady,  a  widow,  had  inherited  an  estate 
bordering  on  some  waste  land  upon  which  these  peas- 
ants had  built  a  village.  The  Hanoum  in  the  mean- 
time married  an  influential  person  at  Constantinople, 
through  whose  authority  and  assistance  she  managed 


CH,  VII.  Reclaimed  Lands.  185 

to  obtain  a  Tajwii,  including  the  village  of  the  settlers 
on  the  waste  land  within  her  own  propert}-.  The  vil- 
lagers indignantly  protested  against  this  act  of  usur- 
pation, and  refused  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of 
the  lady,  who,  however,  returned,  furnished  with 
powerful  Emirnamcs  from  the  Porte  to  the  town  of 

L to  enforce  her  claims.     The  complaints  of  the 

peasants  were  disregarded,  and  they  themselves  were 
seized  as  criminals  and  brought  to  the  Konak,  driven 
into  it  by  blows  that  fractured  the  skull  of  one  and 
occasioned  severe  injuries  to  others,  and  then  im- 
prisoned. 

Disputed  claims  like  this  on  commons,  forests,  etc., 
are  innumerable.  The  estates  sold  by  the  crown  also 
labour  under  the  same  disadvantnges.  Among  many 
cases  I  may  relate  one  in  which  the  purchaser  was 
an  English  gentleman,  who  bought  a  large  estate  in 
Upper  Macedonia,  comprising  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful lakes  in  the  country.  It  was  an  ancient  fief,  sold 
for  the  sum  of  2,0001.  The  speculation  promised  to 
be  a  splendid  one,  and  a  fortune  was  expected  to  be 
realised.  One  day,  however,  as  the  owner  was  walking 
over  his  grounds,  an  old  Turkish  peasant  presented 
himself,  and  with  much  natural  eloquence,  and  per- 
haps some  truth,  explained  to  the  English  bey  that  the 
former  owner  had  usurped  part  of  his  fields  which  Avere 
comprised  in  the  estate.  The  proprietor,  either  con- 
vinced of  the  man's  rights,  or  out  of  kindness,  ordered 


1 86  The  People  of  Turkey.  i>t.  n. 

that  the  contested  lands  should  be  restored ;  but  the 
one  individual  thus  righted  soon  developed  into  a 
legion,  all  presenting  equal  claims.  Subsequently  the 
legion  became  a  band  of  armed  and  menacing  Alba- 
nians, who  by  their  hostile  attitude  stopped  all  at- 
tempts at  culture,  and  threatened  to  shoot  the  tenants 
and  the  steward,  burn  the  crops,  etc.  A  long  hti- 
gation  followed,  and  the  affair  terminated,  after  much 
loss  of  time  and  damages  amounting  to  several  thou- 
sand pounds,  in  the  gentleman  re-sellmg  the  estate  for 
the  amount  he  had  paid  for  it. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  drawbacks,  the  holders 
of  mirie  lands  cannot  sell,  transfer,  or  mortgage  them 
without  a  licence  from  the  authorities,  nor  can  they 
make  them  Vakoiif  property  without  a  special  Firman 
from  the  Sultan. 

3.  The  Memloiike  or  Midk  lands  are  the  freehold 
property  of  their  owner,  Avho  can  do  with  them  whatso- 
ever pleaseth  him  well.  They  do  not  form  a  large 
proportion  of  the  lands  of  Turkey,  and  a  reason  for 
this  is  the  prejudice  entertained  against  this  form  of 
tenure  on  account  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in 
establishing  titles.  It  is  unfortunately  no  unusual 
thing  in  Turkey  for  title-deeds  to  be  forged,  substi- 
tuted, destroyed,  and  otherwise  interfered  with. 

The  descent  and  division  of  Mirie  and  Vakouf  lands 
are  regulated  by  imperial  firmans  and  the  special  ordi- 
nances of  the  Yakouf  laws  ;  but  Memlouke  land  comes 


cir.  VH.  FrccJwld  Land.  187 

under  the  regulation  of  the  Melil-emc  or  court  of  the 
town  Kadi.  The  laws  of  Moslem  inheritance  are  too 
complicated  to  be  recorded  here,  and  their  complexity 
is  aggravated  by  the  mixture  of  Christians  and  the 
different  ways  of  liolding  land.  In  the  absence  of 
lieii's,  mirie  and  memlouke  lands  revert  to  the  state  ; 
vakouf,  as  alread}'  mentioned,  to  the  administration  of 
pious  foundations. 

Memlouke  land  is  transferred  legally  by  conveyance  ; 
vakouf  and  mirie  by  convej^ance  together  with  registra- 
tion. The  duty  on  the  sale  of  memlouke  land  is  five 
])ev  cent.,  and  the  succession  duty,  two  and  a  half  per 
cent. ;  on  mirie,  five  per  cent,  on  sale,  and  the  same  on 
succession  ;  on  vakouf  land,  five  per  cent,  on  sale,  and 
the  same  on  succession.  A  difference,  however,  is 
made  if  the  land  is  built  over. 

The  division  of  property  among  all  the  children 
and  the  reduction  of  its  value  by  these  duties  tend 
constantly  to  the  diminution  and  deterioration  of  Turk- 
ish estates  and  lead  generally  to  mortgage.  Mort- 
gage on  landed  property  is  at  an  average  interest  of 
eighteen  per  cent.  The  result  is  easily  imagined. 
Freehold  lands  may  be  legally  mortgaged  before  two 
witnesses  without  any  fui'ther  precaution ;  but  crown 
and  "  church  "  lands  to  be  mortgaged  must  be  regis- 
tered by  the  registrar  of  title-deeds,  or  the  directors  of 
vakouf  property,  for  the  fee  of  (nominally)  one  per  cent, 

A  gTeat  number  of  large  estates  can  be  pui'chased 


1 88  The  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  n. 

in  all  parts  of    Turke}'  for   very  small    sums.     The 
wealthy  native  Christians  would  gladly  purchase  these, 
but  for  the  complications  that  surround  the  possession 
of  landed  propert}'  that  is  not  vakouf,  and  the  difficul- 
ties and  opposition  to  which  a  Christian  landholder  is 
exposed.     Turks    seldom   look  favourably   upon   the 
passing  of  such  estates  into  Christian  hands.     Those 
who  purchase  them  are  generally  foreign  subjects  ;  the 
rayahs  who  venture  to  do  so  can  never  enjoy  their  ac- 
quisitions in  the  same   peace  and   securit3\     Among 
many  instances  of  encroachment  on  such  estates  by 
hostile  beys,  Circassians,  and  other  neighbours,  I  may 
mention  two  that  have  come  under  my  personal  obser- 
vation. The  first  refers  to  a  wealthy  Bulgarian  gentle- 
man, whose  acquaintance  I  made    ten   years   ago  at 

II .     He  was  a   man   of   great   influence,    and   a 

member  of  the  Medjliss,  or  town  council.  A  large 
estate  owned  by  him,  not  far  from  the  town,  was  twice 
set  on  fire  by  his  Mohammedan  neighbours,  and  a  large 
mill  he  had  constructed  was  pulled  down.  Neither  his 
influence  in  the  district,  nor  his  wealth,  nor  his  posi- 
tion as  member  of  the  council,  could  protect  his  estate, 
which  he  was  finally  obliged  to  abandon. 

The  second  case  was  that  of  a  wealthy  Greek  at 
Baba  Eski,  a  pretty  village  between  Constantinople 
and  Adrianople.  Some  years  ago  I  passed  a  night  in 
the  house  of  this  Chorbadji.  When  I  talked  to  him 
about  his  property  he  complained  bitterly  of  the  lios- 


CH.  VII,  Foreign  Landowners.  1 89 

tility  he  experienced  from  liis  Turkish  neighbours,  and 
of  the  encroachments  of  the  Circassians.  The  former 
had  attempted  to  set  fire  to  his  mill,  and  the  latter  had 
stolen  in  the  course  of  one  year  three  hundred  and 
fifty  head  of  cattle  from  him.  "  Wealth  and  pros- 
perity," said  he,  "are  the  sure  recompense  of  every 
man's  labour  in  a  fine  country  like  this,  but  it  is  hard 
work  to  keep  them  when  acquired."     Last  year  I  met 

the  unfortunate  man  at  C ;  he    ,vas  a  complete 

beggar  in  appearance,  and,  Avitli  tears  in  his  ej^es,  told 
me  how  the  Circassians  and  other  enemies,  profiting 
by  the  troubles  in  Bulgaria,  had  completely  destroj-ed 
his  property.  He  had  come  to  the  town  to  obtain 
redress,  but  I  thought  that  his  efforts  would  be 
fruitless. 

Many  gentlemen  in  Macedonia  are  owners  of  large 
estates.  Some  of  them  are  Greeks  by  birth,  and  all 
foreign  subjects  ;  for  foreign  subjects  are  now  per- 
mitted to  hold  land  in  Turkey  on  the  same  conditions 
as  the  subjects  of  the  Porte.  Having  capital  at  their 
command,  and  being  more  intelligent  than  the  Turks, 
they  improve  their  property,  and  realise  from  seven  to 
ten  per  cent,  profit ;  but  even  their  estates  are  not 
quite  free  from  the  attacks  and  depredations  of 
brigands,  who  often  prevent  them  from  visiting  their 
farms  freely,  or  introducmg  all  the  improvements  they 
are  desirous  of  making.  Out  of  four  of  these,  three 
sent  their  sons  to  Europe,  where  they  were  educated 


190  The    People    of   TlLvJcey.  rr.  II. 

for  the  profession  of  agriculturists,  a  proceeding  quite 
unknown  among  the  Turkish  proprietors.  'Bona  fide 
Europeans  are  more  respected  and  feared,  and  conse- 
quent!,)' are  not  exposed  to  the  hostiUties  to  which 
native  Christians  are  subjected.  Some  English  gentle- 
men possessing  farms  in  Macedonia  have  had  no  occa- 
sion to  complain,  even  in  these  disordered  times,  when 
perfect  anarchy  prevails  ;  their  property  has  been  re- 
spected, and  every  assistance  is  afforded  them  by  the 
local  authoi'ities. 

Estates  can  also  be  rented  for  a  mere  trifle,  and 
when  restored  to  good  condition  are  said  to  yield 
lucrative  returns.  Here  again,  however,  great  care  has 
to  be  taken  to  ascertain  that  they  are  not  disputed  pro- 
perty, and,  in  the  case  of  their  belonging  to  several 
individuals  of  one  family,  that  all  are  of  age,  and  sign 
the  title-deeds.  A  case  was  related  to  me  by  a  mem- 
ber of  the  civil  court  of  A of  a  rayali  who  had 

rented  an  estate  from  a  Turkish  family,  consisting  of 
a  widow  and  her  three  sons,  all  of  whom  were  of  age 
and  had  signed  the  contract  together  with  their 
mother.  The  tenant,  who  was  a  man  of  moderate 
means,  set  to  work  to  improve  the  property,  and  spent 
iilOOO  upon  it ;  but  just  as  he  was  beginning  to  realise 
the  profits  of  his  toil  and  outlay,  a  fourth  son  of  the 
widow  came  of  age  and  disputed  the  validity  of  tlie 
contract.  The  case  was  tried  before  the  local  civil 
court,  and  the  rayah  was  declared  to  have  justice  on 


CH.  VII.  Forests  and  Coinntons.  191 

his  side ;  but  as  the  case  was  one  of  heritage,  the 
Turk  had  the  right  to  transfer  it  to  the  INIehkeme,  or 
religious  court  of  the  Kadi,  which  decided  it  in  his 
favour.  The  result  was  that  the  tenant  was  driven 
out  of  his  estate,  and  lost  all  the  money  he  had  spent 
upon  it. 

Almost  every  village  in  Eoumelia  and  Macedonia, 
and  in  fact  all  over  Turkey,  had  once  its  own  common 
and  forest,  in  which  the  peasant  proprietors,  under 
certain  laws  and  regulations,  had  the  right  to  burn 
charcoal,  cut  wood,  and  let  the  pasturage  in  spring  to 
the  herdsmen,  who  brought  down  their  sheep  and  cattle 
and  kept  them  there  the  greater  part  of  summer. 
This  was  a  great  resource  for  the  rural  population, 
who,  in  bad  years,  could  always  make  some  profit  out 
of  it. 

After  the  organisation  of  the  vilayet  system,  this 
privilege  was  curtailed,  and  the  forests  and  grazing 
grounds  were  placed  under  government  supervision. 
A  Forest  Department  was  established  at  Constan- 
tinople, and  a  chief  inspector  appointed  in  every  dis- 
trict, together  with  agents  to  superintend  the  pastur- 
ages. The  laws  that  were  to  regulate  these  were  said 
to  be  excellent,  and,  whilst  equitable  towards  the 
j)easants,  promised  at  the  same  time  to  yield  consider- 
able revenues  to  the  state.  One  of  these  regulations 
set  forth  that  a  portion  of  forest  and  pasturage  land 
should  be  left  to  the  use  of  each  village,   securing  its 


19-  The  People  of  Turkey.  w.u. 

provision  of  fuel  and  pasturage  for  its  cattle.  None 
of  these  laws  were,  however,  ohserved  in  the  interior, 
and  nothing  definite  was  decided  with  respect  to  either 
of  these  rights. 

The  beys,  through  bribery  and  favouritism,  con- 
tinued to  enjoy  their  ancient  privileges  over  the  forests 
and  gi-azing  lands,  while  the  forest  inspectors  are  said 
to  have  realised  such  immense  profits  that  every  official 
was  desirous  of  becoming  connected  with  the  Forest 
Department.  The  Government  at  the  beginning,  no' 
doubt,  derived  some  good  receipts  from  this  new  source, 
but  the  great  expense  inseparable  from  it,  the  robberies 
that  took  place,  and  the  destruction  of  property  allowed, 
could  not  fail,  in  the  long  run,  to  be  injurious  to  its 
interests.  The  abuses,  partiality,  and  waste  that  mark 
the  proceedings  of  this  branch  of  the  administration 
are  most  prejudicial  to  the  rural  population. 

But   the   agents   of  ^Dasture  lands  and    the   forest 
keepers  are  still  more  t^-rannical. 

The  extent  of  these  grounds  in  the  government 
possession  was  never  defined  nor  has  a  limit  ever 
been  drawn.  The  beys  rented  the  commons  to  the 
herdmasters  ;  the  contracts  were  made  with  the  cogni- 
sance of  the  local  authorities,  and  on  stamped  paper. 
Some  of  the  Aillages  that  possessed  pasturage  let  it  to 
the  Wallachian  sheep  owners,  who,  in  the  early  part 
of  spring,  migrate  annually  into  Macedonia  to  pasture 
their  flocks  on  the  commons. 


cir.  vtr.  Pastiirc-Lauds.  193 


Some   herdsmen  had  made   contracts   for  brmging 

down  300,000   sheep  into  the  pLiins,  paid  the  fees  for 

the  contract,  and  the  stipuhited  sum  to  the  i^easants. 

All  the  arrangements   seemed  in    perfect  order  until 

the   arrival  of  the  flocks  upon  the  different   grazing 

grounds,  when  the}'  were  driven  off  with  violence   and 

brutality  by  the  forest  keepers  and  their  subordinates, 

who  declared  that  they  had  no  right  to   the  pasturage 

unless  they  paid  the  rent.      The  poor  people  produced 

their  contract  to  show  that  they  had  paid  the  money, 

and  refused  to  do  so  a  second  time  ;  justly  observing 

that,  if  any  illegal  action  existed  in  the  renting  of  the 

pasturage,  it  regarded  the  Government  and  the  villagers, 

and  not  them,  and  that  the  Government  should  reclaim 

the  money  from  the  peasants.     This  dispute  lasted  a 

week ;    some   of   the  Wallachians    referred  it  to  the 

local  authorities,  while  others  in  their  distress  applied 

to  any  jierson  from  whom  assistance  could  be  expected. 

Day  after  day  these  men,  women,  and  children,  might 

be  seen  in  the  streets  of  the  town  with  desponding, 

careworn   faces,    anxiously  looking  out   for    some   of 

their  people  wdio  might  tell  them  how  the  case  was 

prospering.     When   I  saw  them  no  more   about  the 

town,  I  asked   one  of  the  principal  officials  how  the 

affair  had   terminated ;    he   replied,    "  Madame,   mal- 

heureusement    le    gouvernement   n'a   pas    su    encore 

mettre  toutes  ces  choses  en   ordre,  et  il  nous   arrive 

souvent    de    ces    cas    tristes  :    mais   ca   vient    d'etre 
VOL.  I.  0 


1 94  The  People  of  Tttrkey.  rr.  n, 

iin-ange."  He  would  not  enlighten  nie  further  on  the 
subject,  b  it  I  subsequently  learnt  that  a  great  amount 
of  bakhshish  had  settled  the  matter  in  favour  of  the 
Wallachians. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

PEASANT      HOLDINGS. 

Small  proprietors  South  of  tlw  5«Z^aM.?— Flourishing  State  of  the 
Country  a  few  Years  ago — A  Rose- Harvest  at  Kezanlik — Bul- 
garian Villages — Oppressive  and  Corrupt  System  of  Taxation 
and  of  Petty  Government — The  Disadvantages  counterbalanced 
by  the  Industry  and  Perseverance  of  the  Bulgarian  Peasant — 
The  Lending  Fund  in  Bulgaria — Its  Short  Duration — Bulgarian 
Peasant  often  unavoidably  in  Debt— Bulgarian  Cottages — Food 
and  Clothing — Excellent  Reports  of  German  and  Italian  En- 
gineers on  the  Conduct  and  Working  Power  of  Bulgarian 
Labourers — Turkish  Peasants — Turkish  Villages — Comparative 
Merits  of  Turkish  and  Bulgarian  Peasants — Land  in  Maccdoma 
— Chiefly  Largo  Estates— tyti/YZife — The  Konali  or  Residence  of 
the  Owner — Country  Life  of  the  Bey  and  his  Family — His 
Tenants  (Yeradj/ii) — Character  of  the  Yeradji — His  Wretched 
Condition — The  Metayer  System  Unfairly  Worked — The  Yeradji 
generally  in  Debt — Virtually  a  Serf  bound  to  the  Soil — Difficulty 
of  getting  Peasants  to  become  Yeradjis  —  Statute  Labour — 
Cultivation  and  Crops. 

The  land  South  of  the  Balkans,  from  the  Black  Sea 
to  the  frontier  of  Macedonia,  is  divided  into  small 
holdings,  which  belong  to  and  are  farmed  by  a  peasant 
population  of  an  essentially  agricultural  nature.  Before 
the  late  destruction  of  property  in  Bulgaria,  almost 
every  peasant  in  those  districts  was  a  proprietor  of 
from  five  to  forty  acres,  which  he  farmed  himself.  The 

larger  estates,  of   which   there   were    a    considerable 

0  2 


196  The  People  of  Ttirkcy.  rr.  n. 

number,  were  superintended  by  the  proprietors  them- 
selves, but  farmed  b}^  hired  labourers.  The  following 
figures  will  give  an  idea  of  the  average  extent  of 
the  holdings  in  those  districts:  —  Out  of  a  thousand 
farms,  three  had  five  hundred  acres ;  thirty  had  between 
one  hundred  and  five  hundred ;  three  hundred  between 
fiftv  and  a  hundred  :  four  hundred  between  ten  and 
fifty;  and  two  hundred  and  sixty-seven  under  ten  acres. 
All  these  lands  were  well  cultivated  and  yielded  rich 
returns.  I  was  astonished  at  the  beauty  and  flourish- 
ing condition  of  the  country  during  a  journey  I  made 
some  years  ago  from  Adrianople  to  Servia.  It  appeared 
like  a  vast  and  fruitful  garden.  The  peace-loving 
and  toiling  Bulgarian  was  seen  everj^where  steadil}' 
going  through  his  daily  work,  wliile  his  equally  active 
and  industrious  wife  and  daughters  were  cheerfully- 
working  b}^  his  side.  J^n  route,  I  stopped  a  few  days 
in  the  lovely  town  of  Kezanlik,  and  was  most  kindly 
received  by  its  well-to-do  and  intelligent  inhabitants, 
who  pressed  their  hospitality  upon  me  with  a  genuine 
kmdness  never  to  be  forgotten.  I  visited  the  schools, 
in  which  the  people  prided  themselves  as  much  as  in 
the  astonishing  progress  the  pupils  were  making  in 
their  studies.  I  was  also  taken  on  a  round  of  visits 
into  well-built  clean  houses  where  European  furniture 
was  beginning  to  find  a  place,  and  contrasted  plea- 
santly with  the  well-made  native  tissues  that  covered 
sofas  and  floors.     At  dawn  next  morning  a  tap  at  \o.j 


CH,  VIII.  A  Rose- Harvest.  197 

door  Hunounced  that  it  was  time  to  rise  and  witness 
the  rose-gathering,  which  I  wished  to  see.  The 
roses  begin  to  be  collected  before  sunrise,  in  order  to 
keep  in  them  all  the  richness  of  their  perfume.  It 
requires  expedition  and  many  hands ;  so  large  bands 
of  young  men  and  maidens,  adding  pleasure  to  toil, 
whilst  gathering  the  roses  amuse  themselves  by 
carrjdng  on  their  innocent  httle  flirtations  and  love- 
makings. 

The  large  garden  to  which  I  was  conducted  belonged 
to  the  wealthy  Chorbadji  in  whose  house  I  was  staying. 
It  was  at  some  distance  from  the  town,  and  b}^  the 
time  we  reached  it  the  bright  rays  of  a  lovely  spring 
morning  were  fast  spreading  over  the  horizon.  The 
field  was  thickly  planted  with  rose  bushes,  with  their 
rich  harvest  of  half- open  dew -laden  buds.  The 
nightingales,  in  flights,  hovered  over  them,  disputing 
their  possession  with  the  light-hearted  Bulgarian 
harvesters,  and  chorusing  with  their  rich  notes  the  gay 
songs  of  the  scattered  company,  who,  dressed  in  their 
Prasnik  (feast-day)  clothes — the  youths  in  snow-wdiite 
shirts  and  gaudy  sleeveless  vests,  the  girls  in  their 
picturesque  costume,  the  coloured  kerchiefs  on  their 
heads  floating  in  the  breeze, — had  the  appearance  of  a 
host  of  butterflies  flitting  over  the  flowers.  The  girls 
were  actively  and  cheerfully  employed  in  strippmg  ofl' 
the  buds,  and  throwing  them  into  the  baskets  slung  on 
their  arms.     The  youths  helped  them  in  the  task,  and 


198  7 he  People  of  Ttirkey.  rr.  n. 

were  rewarded  each  with  a  bud  from  his  sweetheart, 
which  he  phiced  in  his  cap.  The  children  ran  to  and 
fro  emptying  the  baskets  into  larger  receptacles  pre- 
sided over  by  the  matrons,  who  sat  under  the  shade  of 
the  trees  and  sorted  the  roses.  The  whole  picture  was 
so  bright,  and  happy,  in  such  harmony  with  the 
luxuriant  beauty  surrounding  it,  that  I  was  perfectly 
fascinated  by  it,  and  felt  almost  envious  of  those 
happy  beings  (as  I  then  thought  them),  the  careless 
simple  children  of  nature.  Their  happiness  was  not 
for  long. 

It  is  not  a  week  since  my  attention  was  attracted  by 
an  article  in  one  of  our  papers  describing  the  destruc- 
tion of  Kezanlik  and  the  horrors  the  writer  had  wit- 
nessed. The  once  smiling  and  fruitful  district  was 
become  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  villages  in  Bulgaria 
was  very  pleasing.  Those  in  the  plains  were  not 
so  well  built  or  so  picturesque  as  those  nestled  among 
the  hills,  where  the  abundance  and  cheai^ness  of  the 
material  needed  for  building  afforded  greater  facilities 
for  more  solid  and  more  artistic  construction.  Some 
of  these  villages  had  increased  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
look  like  small  towns.  This  was  owing  to  the  more 
equal  division  of  land  among  the  people  and  the  lai-ge 
number  of  landed  proprietors  that  cultivated  it.  In 
the  midst  of  the  difficulties  that  surrounded  them,  such 
as  an  irregular  and  unequal  system  of  taxation  and 


CH.  VIII.  Lending- Fund.  199 

the  encroachment  and  tyrannies  of  petty  government 
officials,  Zaptiehs,  Circassians,  and  sometimes  native 
heys — the  Bulgarian  peasant,  by  his  steady  and  perse- 
vering habits  of  industry,  managed  to  get  on,  and  in 
some  places,  when  favoured  by  circumstances,  even 
to  become  wealthy.  A  species  of  lending  fund  was 
organised  (since  the  introduction  of  the  vila^'et 
system)  by  the  provincial  government,  chiefly  for  the 
benefit  of  the  peasant  class  of  proprietors.  The 
capital  of  this  fund  was  derived  from  an  annual  tax  of 
two  bushels  of  wheat  (or  their  equivalent  in  money) 
levied  on  every  yoke  of  oxen  owned  by  the  farmers, 
and  of  money  contributed  by  those  not  engaged  in 
agriculture,  to  the  value  of  one-tenth  of  their  income- 
tax.  The  agricultural  interest  of  the  country  derived 
great  advantage  from  this  institution.  It  helped  the 
small  farmers  to  borrow  the  sum  needed  for  the  culti- 
vation of  their  crops  and  the  purchase  of  stock  at  a 
reasonable  rate  of  interest,  and  enabled  those  who  had 
large  estates  to  improve  them  without  mortgaging  ; 
while  others  were  enabled  to  free  their  estates  from  the 
mortgages  which  already  burdened  them.  I  believe 
that  this  excellent  institution  did  not  long  continue  in 
working  order,  and  that  latterly  it  was  beyond  the  reach 
of  those  who  really  needed  the  money  and  might  have 
benefited  both  their  farms  and  the  State  by  its  use. 

As   a  general  rule   the    Bulgarian    peasant   is    not 
wealth}^     There  are  many  villages  that  were  so  deeply 


200  The  People  of  Tit r key.  rx.  n. 

in  debt  that  for  years  they  had  not  been  able  to  pay 
then-  taxes.  A  rising  Avas  occasioned  in  one  of  the 
villages  of  the  district  of  Sofia  on  this  account.  The 
Pasha  of  Sofia  had  been  pressed  by  the  Porte  to  send 
some  money  to  Constantinople ;  he,  on  his  part,  had 
to  collect  it  from  the  peo^^le.  Calling  np  a  Chaoush 
of  Zaptiehs,  he  told  him  to  make  the  round  of  the 
villages,  and,  under  pain  of  instant  dismissal,  not 
to  return  empty-handed.  The  Zaptieh  was  a  bandit, 
like  many  of  his  brethren  who  have  represented  the 
police  corps  since  the  diminution  of  pay  and  abolition 
of  the  excellent  body  that  had  been  organised  by  the  wise 
policy  of  Fuad  Pasha  and  Ali  Pasha.  He  marched  with 
his  band  into  one  of  the  villages  and  demanded  that 
^£400  should  at  once  be  paid  to  him.  The  men  were 
absent  from  the  village,  and  the  women,  not  authorised 
to  act  in  such  matters,  could  not  accede  to  his  demand. 
The  Zaptiehs  then  seized  some  and  locked  them  up  in 
a  barn,  and,  after  subjecting  them  to  gross  ill-treatment, 
left  the  village.  The  unfortunate  peasants,  thus 
pressed  b}-  the  authorities  for  taxes  they  could  not 
pay,  and  subjected  to  foul  and  violent  treatment, 
revolted. 

A  Bulgarian  cottage  is  neither  neat  nor  regular 
in  construction.  A  number  of  poles  are  stuck  in 
the  ground,  secured  to  each  other  b}^  wattles,  plastered 
within  and  without  with  clay  and  cow-dung  mixed  with 
straw.     The  walls  are  generally  white-washed,  and  the 


CH.  VIII.  Bulgarian  Cottages.  201 

roof  raised  to  a  dome  covered  with  tiles  or  thatch. 
The  interior,  divided  into  three  rooms,  is  neat  and 
clean.  One  of  the  apartments  is  nsed  as  the  living- 
room  of  the  family,  another  as  sleeping-room,  while  the 
third  is  reserved  for  storing  provisions  and  such  like 
■domestic  pm'poses.  These  rooms  are  of  tolerahle 
height,  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  long  nnd  ten  to 
fifteen  wide.  The  earthen  floor  is  hardened  and 
covered  with  coarse  matting  and  wovdlen  rugs,  the 
handiwork  of  the  inmates.  The  furniture  consists 
principally  of  the  thick  woven  tissues  used  for  bedding 
and  carpeting. 

Pictures  of  the  saints  and  relics  from  jMount  Athos 
adorn  the  walls  ;  a  night  lamp  may  be  seen  suspended 
before  the  most  venerated  of  these  objects,  serving 
the  double  purpose  of  veiUcuse  and  mark  of  regard 
to  the  saint.  The  shelves  round  the  walls  contain 
the  crockery  and  shining  copper  pans,  a  pair  of  pistols, 
and  various  other  articles.  The  bedding,  neatly  rolled 
up,  is  piled  in  one  corner,  while  near  the  door  stand 
the  jars  of  fresh  water.  Attached  to  these  cottages 
are  sheds  for  the  farm  stock  ;  and  a  cowhouse,  pigsty 
and  poultry  house,  an  oven,  and  sometimes  a  well,  are 
enclosed  in  the  yard,  which  is  surrounded  by  walls  or 
fences,  and  guarded  by  dogs. 

In  the  hilly  districts,  the  cottages  of  both  Moham- 
medans and  Christians  are  constructed  with  conside- 
rable solidity.      The  peasants  throughout  European 


202  TIic  People  of  Turkey.  tt.  n. 

Turkey  are  economical  and  frugal ;  their  wants  are 
few,  and  they  are  content  with  very  little.  They  seldom 
taste  fresh  meat,  and  generall}-  live  on  rye  hread  and 
maize  porridge,  or  beans  seasoned  with  vinegar  and 
pej)i3er.  The  dairy  produce  is  consumed  at  home, 
and  on  great  occasions  a  young  pig  or  lamb  serves  as  a 
})'icce  (Ic  rhistance,  washed  down  by  home-made  wine. 
For  pastry,  they  have  a  cake  called  Banitza,  much 
relished  by  all. 

Tlie  clothing  of  the  peasants  is  warm  and  comfort- 
able. It  is  chiefly  composed  of  woollen  stuffs,  coarse 
linen,  or  cotton  cloth.  Every  single  article  of  wearing 
apparel  is  woven,  embroidered,  and  made  up  by  the 
hands  of  the  women,  who  are  at  the  same  time  spinners, 
weavers,  and  tailors.  When  coming  to  town,  and  on 
Prasiiik  days,  coarse  socks  and  sandals  are  worn ; 
these  are  also  home-made,  and  their  use  on  other 
occasions  is  dispensed  with. 

Tlie  Bulgarian  peasant  is  strong  and  healthy  in 
appearance.  Both  in  Bulgaria  and  Macedonia  he  is  a 
diligent  worker.  He  may  not  have  the  smartness  and 
activit}'  of  the  English  labourer,  but  I  have  often  been 
assured  that,  notwithstanding  the  numerous  feast-days 
he  keeps,  at  the  end  of  the  year  he  is  found  to 
have  completed  almost  as  much  work,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  he  makes  his  working-day  much  longer,  and 
his  whole  family  turn  out  to  assist  him :  for  the  women 
of  these  districts  are  as  industrious  as  the  men ;  no 


CH.  viir.  Bulgarian  Labourers.  20; 


sooner  are  their  household  tasks  accomplished  than 
the}'  join  the  paterfamilias  in  the  field. 

The  German  and  Italian  engineers  who  undertook 
the  construction  of  the  railways  in  Macedonia  re- 
2)eatedly  asserted  that  the  labours  of  the  natives  was 
equal  to  that  of  Europeans.  In  Macedonia,  the  Italian 
compan}^  on  commencing  operations,  brought  out 
five  hundred  Italian  navvies  to  work  on  the  line  ;  but 
on  discovering  that  the  natives,  when  well  j^aid,  well 
treated,  and  shown  how  to  set  about  it,  did  the  work 
better  than  the  Italians,  the  latter  were  sent  away. 
These  gentlemen  were  most  warm  in  their  praises  of 
the  steadiness  of  the  men  and  of  the  excellence  of  their 
work  ;  but  I  must  add  that  they  did  not  omit  to  study 
the  character  of  the  people  and  treat  them  with  the 
kindness  and  consideration  that,  in  the  long  run,  never 
fail  to  improve  and  elevate  even  the  most  debased. 

The  Turkish  peasants,  who  are  in  the  minority 
both  in  Bulgaria  and  Macedonia,  have  also  a  healthy 
appearance,  added  in  the  former  place  to  a  look  of 
audacity  and  in  the  latter  to  a  look  of  ferocity.  The 
Greek  peasant  is  tall  and  rather  slim,  with  an  intelli- 
gent look  and  a  hardy  and  self-reliant  expression. 

All  the  rural  population  is  sober.  Greek  and 
Bulgarian  peasants  have,  it  is  true,  every  now  and 
then,  an  orgie ;  but  there  is  no  systematic  drunken- 
ness. All  the  well-to-do  farmers  and  peasants  keep  a 
provision  of  wine   and   raki,  or  spirit,  but  their  daily 


204  The  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  n. 

portion  is  moderate,  and  excesses  are  only  indulged  in 
on  feast  days,  and  even  these  are  not  of  a  very  serious 
nature. 

All  the  \'illages,  both  Greek  and  Bulgarian,  have 
their  Kodja-Bashis,  who  see  to  the  administration 
of  the  village,  proportion  the  taxes,  settle  petty  dis- 
putes, attend  to  the  arrival  and  recej)tion  of  guests, 
Zaptiehs  and  troops,  and  other  wants  or  necessities  of 
the  communit}^ 

The  Turkish  villages  bear  a  more  impoverished 
aiDpearance  and  look  more  neglected  and  decaying  than 
the  Christian.  This  is  partl}^  owing  to  the  seclusion 
of  the  women,  who  are  little  seen  about,  and,  unlike 
the  Christian,  never  sit  working  at  their  doors.  They 
are  helpless  ;  do  no  field  work,  and  very  little  weaving; 
and  occupy  themselves  solety  about  their  indoor  duties, 
and  as  these  are  not  very  heavy,  they  consequently 
spend  much  of  their  time  idly.  The  men  are  labo- 
rious, but  not  so  active  and  energetic  as  the  Christians. 
They  spend  a  good  deal  of  time  smoking  in  the  coffee- 
houses of  the  village,  and  are  much  poorer  than  the 
Christians.  This  is  due,  partly  to  their  character  and 
to  the  absence  of  all  h.e\]}  from  their  wives  ;  but  also 
in  great  part  to  the  conscription,  which  takes  many 
valuable  years  of  labour  from  the  working-man. 
Drunkenness  is  rare  among  Turks  of  this  class,  but 
when  chance  cases  occur  they  are  of  the  most  vicious 
and  incurable  kind. 


CH.  VIII.  ATacedonian  Chiftliks.  205 

In  Macedonia  landed  proper!}'  is  more  unequally 
divided  than  in  Bulgaria.  Great  portions  of  it  are 
united  in  large  estates  held  by  native  beys,  or  b}' 
pashas  and  officials  at  Constantinople.  Some  of  these 
estates  comprise  an  immense  area,  of  which  only  a 
part  is  cultivated.  They  are  called  Chiftliks;  the 
house,  or  Konak,  on  the  estate,  is  the  residence  of  the 
owner  when  he  visits  it,  for  he  seldom  resides  on  his 
j)roperty,  but  is  represented  by  a  Souhashi,  or  agent. 
The  elegance,  dimensions,  and  comfort  of  the  Konak 
depend,  of  course,  upon  the  means  and  habits  of  the 
owner.  Some  of  the  more  ancient  of  these  edifices 
are  large  and  spacious,  built  in  the  style  of  the  old 
Konaks  at  Stamboul ;  but  they  present  a  still  more 
dilapidated  and  neglected  appearance.  Others  of  more 
recent  erection  are  smaller,  but  neither  more  com- 
fortable nor  more  tidy  in  appearance.  Some,  again, 
are  in  the  form  of  turrets,  which,  if  not  elegant,  have 
at  least  the  merit  of  being  as  strong  as  small  fortresses. 
A  large  courtyard  contains,  beside  the  house,  the 
usual  farm  buildings.  On  entering  the  yard  of  the 
best  regulated  ChiftUk,  the  first  thing  that  attracts  the 
attention  is  the  air  of  complete  disorder  and  dirt  that 
pervades  the  premises.  In  one  or  two  corners  may  be 
seen  heaps  of  refuse,  in  others,  broken  carts  and  farm 
implements  standing  in  the  midst  of  mud  i)ools  and 
filth  of  ever}'  description,  including  a  collection  of  old 
brooms  that  could  never  have  been  worn  out  in  sweep- 


2o6  The  People  of  Turkey.  i>r.  n. 

ing  the  place.  Among  tlicse,  children,  fowls,  geese, 
ducks,  and  dogs  roam  in  freedom.  The  interior  of 
the  Konak  is  usually  divided  into  Haremlik  and 
Selamlik,  if  sufficient!}^  large.  One  or  two  rooms  in 
each  department  may  be  furnished  with  a  few  hard 
sofas  and  dingy  calico  curtains.  The  room  reserved 
for  the  master  sometimes  presents  a  somewhat  better 
appearance,  its  walls  decorated  with  fire-arms,  some- 
times of  beautiful  workmanship,  and  its  furniture 
boasting  a  deal  table  and  a  few  chairs.  When  the  Bey 
intends  paying  a  long  visit  to  his  estate  and  is  accom- 
panied by  his  family,  the  bedding  and  other  household 
necessaries  are  brought  from  town.  It  is  astonishing 
to  see  how  little  luggage  a  Turkish  family  travels  with 
on  such  an  occasion.  Each  person  will  have  a 
hoghcJia*  containing  his  or  her  wearing  apparel  ;  the 
articles  for  general  use  comprise  a  few  candlesticks, 
petroleum  lamps,  perhaps  two  Lcyen  f  and  Ihrik  \  for 
ablutions,  which  in  the  morning  and  at  meal  times 
make  the  round  of  the  house ;  kitchen  utensils  and  a 
few  tumblers,  plates,  etc.,  are  all  that  is  needed  for  the 
Villeggiatura  of  a  Turkish  family. 

The  way  in  which  the  Bey  spends  his  time  on 
his  estate  is  also  regulated  by  the  means  and  tastes  of 
the  individual.  If  he  be  a  sportsman,  he  will  have  a 
battue   on  his  lands   and   enjoy  the  pleasures  of  the 

*  Boghcha,  bundle, 
t  Leyen,  basin.  +  Ibrik,  jug. 


CH.  vm,  Cotmtry-Life  of  the  Beys.  207 

chase.  SlioukI  he  he  addicted  to  diinking  and  de- 
bauclieiy,  he  has  every  means  of  indulging  liis  taste. 
His  duties  as  landL^rd  consist  in  regulating  accounts 
with  his  agent,  hearing  the  cases  that  need  his  inter- 
ference, giving  general  instructions  for  future  opera- 
tions, and,  above  all,  realizing  the  profits.  As  to 
improving  his  estate,  ameliorating  the  condition  of  the 
tenants,  beautifying  the  property  b}^  planting  trees  and 
lajdng  out  gardens,  such  things  are  never  thought  of  or 
known  to  have  been  practised  by  an}^  large  landowner 
in  Macedonia. 

The  harem,  on  their  side,  bring  friends  to  stay  with 
them ;  and  the  days  are  spent  in  roaming  out  bare- 
footed in  the  most  negliges  costumes,  eating  fruit,  and 
helping  to  make  the  winter  provisions,  such  as  Tarhana 
Kouakous,  Youfka,*  Petmais,f  Rechel,l  and  NicliesteJi.^ 
No  needlework  is  brought  to  fill  up  the  leisure  hours 
of  country  life  ;  the  only  amusements  are  the  indecent 
conversation  and  the  practical  jokes  of  the  parasites 
who  never  fail  to  accompany  such  parties. 

The  villages  owned  by  the  bey  are  made  up  of  the 

dwellings  of  the  tenants.     These  for  the  most  part 

present  a  pitiable  appearance  of  poverty-  and  niiserj^, 

though  til  eir  interiors  are  as  clean  as  circumstances  will 

allow.     They  are  constructed  of  mud  and  wattle,  and 

*  Pastes  for  soup  and  pilaf. 

f  Molasses  made  from  grapes. 

%  Preserves  made  with  molasses  fi'om  fresli  or  dried  fruits. 

§  Starch  made  fi'om  wheat,  much  used  for  making  sweets. 


2oS  The  People  of  Tin-key.  r-r.  ii. 

divided  into  two  or  three  rooms,  with  small  openings 
for  windows,  and  open  cliimne3's.  A  fence  encloses 
the  house,  together  with  the  granar}'  and  cattle  shed. 
The  tenants  are,  with  few  exceptions,  Christians,  and 
are  called  YeraJjis.  They  are  poor,  and  look  dejected 
and  depressed,  a  demeanour  I  have  often  heard  super- 
ficial observers  attribute  to  laziness  and  natural  wo)th- 
lessness.  This  judgment  maj^be  just  in  some  instances, 
but  can  by  no  means  be  taken  as  generally  correct ;  the 
people  are  as  willing  to  w^ork  and  gain  an  honest  living 
as  those  of  any  other  laud,  but  they  labour  under  cer- 
tain chsadvantages  which  merit  attention,  and  which, 
when  carefulty  examined,  will  go  far  to  justify-  their 
failmgs. 

A  Yeradji's  house  costs  from  £^0  to  £50 ;  some- 
times it  is  built  by  the  landlord,  sometimes  by  the 
tenant  himself.  This  may  happen  for  instance  when 
the  Yeradji  has  a  son  to  marry  and  the  landlord 
refuses  to  build  a  house  for  him,  in  which  case  he  has 
to  build  it  at  his  own  expense,  and  should  he  leave 
the  estate,  receives  no  compensation  for  it.  These 
Chiftliks  are  cultivated  on  the  Metaj'er  sj^stem  as  it  is 
understood  and  practised  in  Macedonia  :  the  landlord 
provides  the  seed  in  the  first  instance,  the  Yeradji 
finds  his  own  yoke  of  oxen  or  bufi"aloes  and  imi^le- 
ments,  tills  the  ground,  sows  the  grain,  reaps  it, 
threshes  and  winnows  it,  and  when  the  seed  for  the 
next  vear  and  the  tithes  have  been  deducted,  shares 


CH,  VI I r.  Burdens  of  the   Tenants.  209 

the  produce  with  the  landlord.  The  Metayer  S3'stem 
on  a  luxuriant  soil  like  that  of  Macedonia  would  not 
only  pay,  but  would  also  contribute  to  increase  the 
wealth  of  the  estate  and  improve  the  wretched  con- 
dition of  the  Yeradji  if  it  were  only  properly  and 
equitably  administered.  But  it  is  not  difficult  to  point 
out  capital  failings  in  the  working  of  the  system.  When 
the  grain  is  cut,  a  certain  number  of  sheaves,  forty  for 
instance,  of  the  finest  and  heaviest,  are  set  aside  as 
samples.  These  are  threshed  separatel}',  and  the  seed 
for  the  next  year,  the  tithes  and  the  landlord's  share, 
deducted  according  to  this  standard,  which  leaves 
the  Yeradji  an  iniquitously  small  proportion  of  the 
produce.  Under  this  unfair  arrangement  the  Yeradji 
has  to  give  for  every  head  of  cattle  he  possesses 
six  Constantinople  kiles  of  barley  and  six  of  wheat 
to  the  Soiibasld  of  his  bey. 

In  addition  to  these  the  Yeradji  has  to  defray 
the  heavy  burden  of  his  own  taxes,  and  the  quarter- 
ing of  troops  and  Zaptiehs  upon  him,  besides  other 
burdens,  among  which  must  be  reckoned  the  wasted 
time  of  the  numerous  feast  days,  that  deprive  him 
of  so  much  work  in  the  year.  Toil  as  hard  as  he 
may,  he  can  never  become  an  independent  and 
prosperous  man. 

"When  these  estates  are  transferred  by  sale  or  other 
causes,  the  Yeradji,  should  he  be  in  debt  to  the 
estate,  goes  with  it  into  a  sort  of  bondage  terminable 

VOL.  I.  p 


2IO  The  People  of  Ttirkey.  pt.  n. 

under  certain  conditions,  viz. :  liis  industry  and  activity 
and  the  honesty  of  the  hmdlord  and  his  agent.  If  on 
one  hand  the  superabundance  of  feast  days  is  to 
be  looked  upon  as  a  hindrance  to  the  Yeradji  freeing 
himseK  from  debt,  the  unscrujoulous  manner  in  which 
his  master  or  the  Soubashi  reckons  accounts  opposes- 
fresh  obstacles  to  the  breaking  of  the  chain  that  binds 
him  to  the  soil.  Farm  accounts  are  generally  kept  by 
means  of  chetolas,  or  notched  sticks,  a  very  primitive 
mode,  leading  to  many  en'ors  being  committed,  wit- 
tingly or  unwittingly.  The  consequence  is,  that  all 
tenants  are  more  or  less  in  debt  to  their  landlords  in 
the  same  manner  as  all  Turkish  landlords  are  in  debt 
to  the  Government  or  to  private  individuals. 

The  scarcity  of  Yeradjis  and  their  disquahfications  as 
tenants  are  now  a  general  complamt  throughout  Mace- 
donia. It  is  not,  however,  sui^irising  that  the  better 
class  of  peasants  should  refuse  to  become  Yeradjis,  and 
that  the  inferior  classes,  emploj^ed  in  their  absence, 
should  be  found  fault  with  and  be  always  in  debt. 

Of  late  years  some  of  these  estates  have  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Christians,  by  piu'chase  or  mortgage. 
These  proprietors,  as  a  rule,  do  not  reside  on  their 
estates,  which  are  left  in  the  charge  of  an  agent,  but 
content  themselves  with  an  occasional  visit.  When 
this  property  is  well  situated,  and  (as  seldom  happens) 
free  from  litigation,  it  is  said  to  be  a  good  investment. 

Besides    these     Yeradji    villages,    there    are    the 


CH .  \- 1 1  r .  StahUe-L  abour.  2 1 1 

Kephaloclioiia,  or  head-villages,  comjjosed  of  petty 
landholders,  some  of  whom  were  formerly  wealthy  and 
might  have  continued  so  but  for  the  injury  done  to 
them  by  the  forest  regulations  and  the  heavy  imposi- 
tions laid  upon  them  by  the  Government  since  the 
commencement  of  the  war. 

One  of  the  principal  grievances  peasants  labour 
under  is  the  angaria,  or  statute -labour,  into  which 
man,  beast,  and  cart  are  impressed  at  ihe  command  of 
a  mere  Zaptieh,  causing  a  loss  of  time,  and  injur}^  to 
property  and  cattle,  which  is  often  fatal  to  an  other- 
wise well-to-do  village.  A  village  on  a  main  road  is 
never  free  from  all  kinds  of  vexatious  impositions  and 
the  quartering  of  Zaptiehs  and  troops,  who,  whether 
they  pay  or  not  for  what  they  have  consumed,  extort 
sums  of  money  from  their  hosts,  and  are  always 
careful  to  take  awa}^  with  them  a  declaration  from  the 
Kodja-Bashi  that  all  accounts  have  been  settled. 

The  Angaria  work  lately  exacted  from  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Cavalla  for  the  transport  of  flour  for  the  use 
of  the  army  was  very  nearly  occasioning  troubles  of  a 
nature  likely  to  prove  fatal  to  the  whole  town.  The 
affair  originated  in  the  townspeople  being  requu'ed  to 
carry  on  Sunday  loads  which  they  willingly  carried  on 
Satui'day.  The}^  refused,  and  shut  themselves  up  in 
their  houses ;  whereupon  an  excess  of  zeal  was  dis- 
played by  the  police  in  trying  to  force  them  out  bv 

breaking  into   some  of   the  dwellings.      This  led  to 

1'  2 


2 1 2  TJie  People  of  Tttrkey.  pt.  u. 

a  slight    disturbance   which    encouraged    some    noted 

bad  characters  belonging  to  the  Moslem  population 

to  take  a  menacing  attitude,  and  conspire  to  break 

into  the  offices  of  some  of  the  principal  merchants 

of  the  town,  ransack  them,  and  then  proceed  to  follow 

the  precedent  with  the  rest  of  the  town,  threatening 

the   Christians  with   massacre.      Panic  soon  spread, 

and  the  people  shut  themselves   in   their   churches. 

Men-of-war  were  telegraphed  for,  but  luckily  the  local 

authorities  were  able  to  put    down   the    tumult,  and 

order  was  restored  without  loss  of  life.     The  incident 

is  instructive  in  showing  the  difficulties  and  dangers 

imder  which  the  Macedonian  peasant  carries  on  his 

work.     It  is  no  wonder  that  the  land  is  ill- cultivated. 

Among  the  peasant  farmers  of  Iloumelia  there  is  no 

regular  system  of   rotation  of   crops  observed ;    but 

with  the  occupants  of  large  estates  the  ordinary  rule 

for  rich  lands  is  two  wheat  crops  and  one  of  oats,  then 

fallow  one  or  more  years,  wheat,  and  then  sesame. 

In  Macedonia,  where  arable  land  is  more  abundant, 

one  year's  rest  is  allowed  to  some  lands.     The  only 

manure  some  of  these  lands  obtain  is  from  the  treading 

of  the  sheep  on  the  land  in  early  spring  and  after  the 

harvest  is  reaped,  and  yet  the  soil  is  naturall}^  so  rich 

that  a  generally  bad  harvest  is  of  rare  occurrence. 

The  mode  of  cultivation  is  very  primitive,  emplojdng 

much  hand  labour  and  involving  much  waste.     Tillage 

is  performed  with  the  native  plough,  on  an  average 


CH.  vrir.  Farming.  213 


depth  of  foui-  inches  to  the  furrow.  The  instrument 
used  for  the  purpose  is  ver}-  i'ude  and  has  only  one 
handle.  The  number  of  buffaloes  used  varies  from 
two  to  five.  In  Roumelia  some  large  estate  owners 
attempted  introducing  agricultural  implements  from 
Europe,  but  threshing  machines  alone  met  with  any 
success.  In  Macedonia  even  these  proved  a  failure,  as 
theu'  management  is  not  understood,  and  fuel  is  diffi 
cult  to  procure  in  the  interior.  In  some  parts  the 
grain  is  scattered  over  the  stubble  and  then  ploughed 
in.  Much  of  the  harvest  is  done  by  young  women 
and  girls  in  Roumelia  and  Macedonia.  They  and  the 
male  harvesters  hire  themselves  for  the  June  harvest. 
On  the  21st  August  the  harvest-home  is  celebrated. 
Decked  in  their  holiday  costumes,  crowned  with  gar- 
lands, and  carrying  bouquets  composed  of  ears  of  corn, 
the  reaj^ers  proceed  to  the  nearest  town  to  dance  and 
sing  before  the  doors  of  the  principal  houses  and  in 
the  market-place. 

Threshing  is  performed  in  the  most  antique  manner 
imaginable.  The  instrument  used  for  the  purpose 
consists  of  two  pieces  of  wood  cmwed  at  one  end, 
fastened  together,  and  studded  with  a  number  of  flints. 
This  is  attached  at  the  curved  end  to  a  team  of  three 
or  four  horses.  A  girl  stands  on  this  sledge  and 
drives  the  team  rapidly  over  the  corn  thrown  in 
bundles  on  the  ground,  which  has  been  hardened  and 
prepared  for  the  purpose.     This  process  breaks  the 


^14  The  People  of  Turkey.  vx.w. 


straw  into  very  small  lengths,  making  it  very  palatable 
food  for  the  cattle.  The  corn  is  winnowed  by  being 
thrown  up  in  the  aii'  with  wooden  shovels,  the  breeze 
carrying  away  the  chaff.  In  some  parts  of  Macedonia 
the  process  is  even  more  simj)le.  A  team  of  horses  is 
driven  over  the  bundles  of  corn,  treading  out  the 
grain.  The  women  and  children  also  sit  on  the 
ground  and  help  in  the  operation  by  beating  it  with 
sticks. 

The  principal  crops  raised  in  Roumeha  are  wheat, 
barley,  maize,  rye,  oats,  sesame,  and  canary-seed.  A 
considerable  quantity  of  rice  is  grown  in  some  parts. 
In  the  south,  towards  Adrianople,  the  vine  reaches 
some  degree  of  perfection,  and  excellent  wine  is  made, 
which,  when  kept  for  some  years,  resembles  sherry  in 
taste  and  colour.  The  mulberry  grows  abundantly, 
and  before  the  silkworm  disease  appeared  in  those 
distiicts  formed  a  very  profitable  branch  of  industry. 
The  mulberry  gardens  sometimes  comprise  several 
acres  of  land ;  when  they  are  near  towns  or  large 
villages,  the  silkwonn  nurseries  are  placed  in  them. 
The  rearing  process  begins  in  early  spring,  with  the 
budding  of  the  leaves,  and  lasts  over  two  months. 
It  is  a  very  tedious  and  laborious  work,  requiring 
great  neatness  and  attention,  and  is  generally  un- 
dertaken by  the  women.  When  the  crop  succeeds 
and  is  free  from  disease,  it  is  an  interesting  process 
to  watch.     In  Macedonia  the  same  crops  are  grown. 


en.   VIII. 


Cattle,  215 


with  the  addition  of  a  large  supply  of  excellent  tobacco. 
The  best  comes  from  Drama  and  Cavalla. 

The  cattle  in  Turkey,  though  small,  are  hardy  and 
very  serviceable.  Little  attention  has  hitherto  been 
paid  by  the  Government  towards  improving  the  breed. 
The  sheep,  too,  are  small,  and  their  wool  is  of  an 
inferior  quality.  Those  in  Asiatic  Turkey  are  mostly 
of  the  Karamanian,  or  broad-tailed,  breed.  Their  fat 
is  much  used  by  the  natives  for  cookery,  and  their 
milk  made  into  cheese.  Sheep-farming  is  carried  on 
to  a  great  extent  both  in  European  and  Asiatic  Turkey. 
Buftaloes  for  draft  purposes  and  ploughing,  and  camels 
as  beasts  of  burden,  are  very  numerous,  especially  in 
Asia  Minor.  Great  numbers  of  goats  are  also  kept ; 
their  milk  is  much  used  for  makmg  cheese.  The 
Angora  goats  are  (I  need  hardly  say)  much  prized  for 
their  fleece.  Their  introduction  into  other  parts  of 
the  country  has  been  attempted  several  times,  but  has 
invariably  failed.  They  do  not  thrive  away  from  their 
native  mountains. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

TUEKISH    HOUSES. 

The  Turkish  Quarter — A  Konak — Haremlik  and  Selamlik — Arrange- 
ment of  Eooms — Furniture — The  TancJonr — Turkish  Clemency 
towards  Vermin — Bordofska — An  Albanian  Konak — The  Pasha 
and  his  Harem — A  Turkish  Bas-hlcv. — Piuins  of  Konahs  outside 
Uskup — The  Last  of  the  Albanian  Deri-Beys — A  Konah  at 
Bazardjik — The  Widow  of  the  Deri-Bey — Kiosks — Konlas—A. 
Konla  near  Salonika — Christian  Quarters — Khans — Furniture — 
Turkish  Baths,  Public  and  Private — Cafes. 

Bright  sunshine,  fresh  air,  ample  space,  and  pure 
water  are  indispensable  to  the  felicity  of  a  Turk.  Both, 
in  the  capital  and  in  provincial  towns  the  Turkish 
quarter  is  invariably  situated  in  the  most  healthy  and 
elevated  parts,  and  occupies,  on  account  of  the  gardens 
belonging  to  almost  every  Turkish  house,  double  the 
ground  of  the  Chnstian  and  Jewish  quarters.  These 
gardens  are  all  more  or  less  cultivated,  but,  except  in 
the  capital,  where  horticulture  has  obtained  some 
degree  of  perfection,  they  seldom  display  either  taste 
or  order.  A  few  fine  mulberry  or  other  fruit-trees 
may  be  seen  here  and  there  overshadowing  patches 
of  ground  bordered  with  box  or  tiles,  and  planted 
with  roses,  lettuces,  and  garlic  ;  and  in  the  gardens  of 
the  better  class  of  houses,  one  may  often  see  pretty 
fountains. 


CH.   IX. 


A  Konak.  217 


The  streets  of  the  Turkish  quarter  are  narrow  and 
irregular,  and,  except  in  the  principal  thoroughfares, 
look  solitary'  and  deserted ;  they  are,  however, 
cleaner  than  those  of  the  Christian  and  Jewish 
quarters,  and  this  for  three  good  reasons: — they  are 
little  frequented ;  they  are  not  encumbered  witli 
rubbish,  owing  to  the  space  the  Turks  possess  in  their 
courtyards  and  gardens,  where  they  can  heap  up  most 
of  the  refuse  that  the  Christians  have  ^o  throw  into  the 
streets  ;  and  they  are  better  patrolled  by  the  street  dogs, 
for  these  famous  scavengers,  being  under  the  special 
protection  of  the  Mussulman,  are  more  numerous  in 
the  Turkish  than  in  the  other  quarters,  and  eat  up  all 
the  animal  and  vegetable  refuse. 

A  Turkish  konak  or  mansion,  is  a  large  build- 
ing, very  irregular  in  construction  and  without  the 
slightest  approach  to  European  ideas  of  comfort  or 
convenience.  This  building  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  haremlik  and  the  selamlik ;  the  former  and  larger 
part  is  allotted  to  the  women,  the  latter  is  occuj^ied 
b}'  the  men  and  is  used  for  the  transaction  of  business, 
the  purposes  of  hospitality,  and  formal  receptions. 
The  stables  are  attached  to  it,  forming  part  of 
the  ground  floor,  and  rendering  some  of  the  upper 
rooms  rather  unpleasant  quarters.  A  narrow  passage 
leading  from  the  maheyn  (or  neutral  ground)  to 
the  haremlik,  joins  the  two  establishments.  The 
materials    used   for    building   are    wood,    lime,    mud 


2i8  The  People  of  Turkey.  vwn. 

and  stone  for  the  foundations.  A  Konak  generally 
consists  of  two  stories,  one  as  nearly  as  possible  re- 
sembling the  other,  with  abundant  provision  for  the 
entrance  of  light  and  aii'.  A  large  hall  called  the 
devankhane,  forms  the  entrance  into  the  Haremlilc ; 
it  is  sui'rounded  by  a  number  of  rooms  of  various 
sizes.  To  the  right,  the  largest  serves  as  a  sort  of 
ante-chamber,  the  rest  are  sleeping  apartments  for  the 
slaves,  with  the  exception  of  one  called  kahve-agak, 
■where  an  old  woman  is  always  found  sitting  over  a 
charcoal  brazier,  ready  to  boil  coffee  for  every  visitor. 
A  large  double  staircase  leads  to  the  upper  story,  on 
one  side  of  which  is  the  kiler,  or  storeroom,  and  on 
the  other  the  lavatories.  The  floors  are  of  deal,  kept 
scrupulously .  clean  and  white,  and  in  the  rooms 
generall}^  covered  with  mats  and  rugs.  The  furniture 
is  exceedingly  poor  and  scanty ;  a  hard  uncomfortable 
sofa  runs  along  two  and  sometimes  three  sides  of  the 
room ;  a  shelti',  or  small  square  mattress,  occupies 
each  corner,  surmounted  by  a  number  of  cushions  piled 
one  upon  the  other  in  regular  order.  The  corner  of 
the  sofa  is  the  seat  of  the  Hanoum,  and  by  the  side  of 
the  cushions  are  placed  her  mirror  and  chekmege. 

A  small  European  sofa,  a  few  chairs  placed  stiffly 
against  the  wall,  a  console  supporting  a  mirror  and 
decorated  with  two  lamps  or  candlesticks,  together 
with  a  few  goblets  and  a  small  table  standing  m  the 
centre  with  cigarettes    and    tiny  ash-trays,  complete 


CH.  IX.  Fttrniture.  219 

the  furniture  of  the  grandest  provincial  Buyuk-oda. 
Though  some  Turks  possess  many  rare  and  curious 
objects,  such  as  ancient  armour  and  china,  which,  if 
displayed,  would  greatly  add  to  the  elegance  and 
clieerfuhiess  of  their  apartments.  These  are  always 
kept  i^acked  away  in  boxes. 

Windows  are  the  great  inconvenience  in  Turkish 
houses ;  they  pierce  the  walls  on  every  side,  with 
hardly  the  space  of  a  foot  between  them.  The  curtains 
are  usually  of  coarse  prmted  calico,  short  and  scanty, 
with  the  edges  pinked  out,  so  that  when  washed  they 
present  a  miserably  ragged  appearance.  The  in- 
numerable windows  render  the  houses  ill-adapted 
either  for  hot  or  cold  weather;  the  burning  rays  of  the 
sun  pour  in  all  day  in  summer,  and  the  frames  are  so 
badly  constructed  that  the  cold  wind  enters  in  all 
directions  in  winter. 

Bedsteads  are  not  used  b}-  the  Tm*ks  ;  mattresses 
are  nightly  spread  on  the  floor,  and  removed  in  the 
morning  into  large  cupboards,  built  into  the  walls  of 
every  room.  These  walls  being  whitewashed  and 
roughly  furnished,  increase  the  uncomfortable  appear- 
ance of  the  rooms,  which  at  night  are  dimly  lighted  by 
one  or  two  sperm  candles  or  a  petrolemn  lamp,  the 
successors  of  the  ancient  tallow  candle.  The  halls 
and  passages  are  left  in  obscurity,  and  the  servants  find 
their  way  about  as  well  as  they  can. 

The  mangals  or  braziers  are  the   warming    appa- 


2  20  The  People  of  Turkey.  vw  n. 

ratus  generall}'  used  by  the  Tm-ks  in  tlieii-  houses. 
Tliese  are  made  of  different  metals  ;  some  fixed  in 
wooden  frames,  others  in  frames  of  wrought  brass  of 
very  elegant  and  costl}-  workmanship.  The  fuel 
consists  of  a  quantity  of  wood  ashes  in  v/hich  burning 
charcoal  is  half  bmied. 

The  taiulour,  now  nearly  fallen  into  disuse,  is 
also  Avorthy  of  notice.  It  consists  of  a  square  deal 
table  with  a  foot-board  covered  with  tin,  on  which  a 
brazier  stands ;  the  whole  is  covered  with  a  thick 
quilted  counterpane  which  falls  in  heavy  folds  on  a 
sofa  running  round  it,  covering  the  loungers  up  to  the 
chin,  and  giving  one  the  idea  of  a  comj)any  of  people 
huddled  together  in  bed.  The  tandour  is  still  very 
much  used  in  Smyrna,  and  round  it  the  Levantine 
ladies  love  to  sit  during  the  winter  months.  More 
than  one  English  traveller,  newly  arrived  in  the 
country,  when  ushered  into  a  drawing-room,  is  said 
to  have  rushed  franticall}'  out  again  under  the  impres- 
sion that  he  had  suiprised  the  family  in  bed. 

The  furnitui'e  of  the  selamlik  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  Haremlik.  A  family  often  removes  from  one 
set  of  apartments  to  another;  this  propensity  is  doubt- 
less stimulated  by  the  desire  to  escape  from  the 
assaults  of  the  fleas  and  other  vermin  that  swarm  in 
the  rooms.  When  once  these  insects  obtain  a  footing 
in  a  house,  it  is  difficult  to  get  rid  of  them,  partly  on 
account  of  the  unwillingness  of  the  Turks  to  destro}^ 


cii.  IX.  hisedicidc.  221 

animal  life  of  any  description,  and  partly  because  these 
insects  take  up  their  abode  between  the  badly  joined 
planks  under  the  mats  and  rugs. 

I  was  once  visiting  at  the  house  of  a  Pasha  lately 
arrived  at  Adrianople.  The  Hanoum,  a  charming 
woman,  was  complaining  bitterly  to  me  of  her  rest 
having  been  much  disturbed  the  previous  night  by  the 
abundance  of  these  creatures  in  her  apartment.  One 
of  the  slaves  modestly  remarked  that  she  had  occupied 
herself  all  the  morning  in  scalding  the  floor  of  the 
room  her  mistress  had  slept  in,  and  expressed  a  hope 
that  she  would  not  be  longer  troubled  in  that  respect. 
A  general  outcry  against  this  slave's  want  of  humanity 
was  raised  by  all  the  women  present,  and  a  chorus  of 
"Yuzuk!  Gunah!"  (Pity!  Sin!)  was  heard.  It 
is  curious  that  they  raised  no  such  outcry  when 
they  heard  of  the  frightful  destruction  of  human  life 
that  took  place  a  few  years  later  among  their  Christian 
neighbours  in  Bulgaria,  but  a  few  miles  from  their  ov/n 
secure  homes ! 

WJien  in  the  interior  I  had  the  opportunity  of  visit- 
ing some  Konaks  worthy  of  note  ;  one  of  these  called 
Bordofska,  situated  in  the  heart  of  Albania,  some 
leagues  from  Uskup,  had  been  built  as  a  country  resi- 
dence by  the  famous  Hevni  Pasha.  It  was  an  immense 
building,  solidly  constructed  of  stone  at  the  expense  and 
with  the  forced  labour  of  the  people,  who  were  pressed 
into  the  work.      It  occupied  the  middle  of  a  large 


22  2  The  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  ii. 

garden  that  must  have  been  beautiful  in  its  time,  and 
being  surrounded  by  high  walls  bore  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  a  feudal  castle.  This  fine  old  building  had 
become  the  property  of  Osman  Pasha,  a  venerable 
Turk  of  the  old  school;  all  the  furniture  was  European 
and  of  a  very  rich  and  elegant  description,  but  looked 
worn  and  neglected.  The  aged  Pasha  received  me 
with  the  politeness  and  hospitality  his  nation  knows 
so  well  how  to  show  when  it  pleases. 

After  an  interchange  of  civilities  and  having  jjar- 
taken  of  coffee,  I  was  invited  to  visit  the  harem.  A 
hideous  black  monster,  the  chief  of  the  eunuchs,  led 
the  way  through  a  long  dark  passage  lined  Avith  forty 
of  his  brethren,  not  more  pleasant-looking  than  him- 
self, who  salaamed  to  me  as  I  passed. 

My  then  limited  experiences  of  the  customs  of 
harems  made  me  regard  this  gloomy  passage  and  its 
black  occupants  with  feelings  of  curiosity,  not  un- 
mingled  with  dread.  The  chief  wife  of  Osman  Pasha 
(for  I  believe  he  had  six  others,  besides  slaves)  was  a 
very  fat,  elderly  person,  who  showed  little  disposition 
to  give  me  the  hearty  and  civil  reception  I  had  just 
received  from  her  husband,  and  I  soon  discoverved 
that  she  belonged  to  that  peculiar  class  of  Turkish 
women  called  Soffous — the  has-hleus  of  Moham- 
medanism, bigoted  zealots  of  the  straightest  sect  of 
the  Moslem  Pharisees. 

On  entering  the  room  I  found  the  Hanoum  seated 


CH.  IX.  Ancient  Konaks,  223 


in  lier  sofa  corner,  from  which  she  did  not  rise  but 
merely  gave  a  bend  of  the  head,  with  a  cohl  "  Ne 
yaparsen?"*  in  response  to  my  deep  Oriental  obeis- 
ance. She  spoke  very  little,  and  the  few  words  she 
was  obliged  to  utter  were  intermingled  with  Duvas  she 
muttered ;  perhaps  askmg  forgiveness  for  the  sin  she 
was  committing  in  holding  direct  intercourse  with  a 
Giaour.  The  other  wives,  who  were  all  pretty  and 
gay,  tried  to  make  amends  for  the  ill-humour  of  their 
doyenne,  and  were  as  kind  and  amiable  as  etiquette 
would  allow  in  her  presence. 

Four  other  Konaks  of  tlie  same  description  may  still 
be  seen  outside  the  town  of  Uskup,  standing  alongside 
in  melancholy  decay.  The  fii'st  and  largest  was  in- 
tended for  the  residence  of  the  once  powerful  Hevni 
Pasha  himself;  the  second  for  his  son,  and  the  two 
others  for  his  daughters.  I  was  deepl}^  impressed  by 
the  sight  of  these  imposing  ruins,  and  visited  them 
with  the  double  object  of  satisfjdng  my  curiosity  and 
ascertaining  the  possibility  of  lodging  myself  in  some 
habitable  corner  of  one  of  them  during  my  stay  in  the 
neighbourhood.  The  interior  was  well  worth  seeing, 
and  comprised  splendid  apartments,  the  walls  and 
ceilings  being  decorated  with  gildings  and  elaborate 
carvings  in  walnut  wood.  The  baths  of  sculptured 
marble  could  still  be  taken  as  models  of  that  luxurious 
and  indispensable  appendage  to  a  Turkish  house.     A 

*  ■'  How  do  you  do  ? "' 


2  24  ^^^'-^  People  of  Turkey.  w.  w. 

wing  of  one  of  these  buildings  was  habitable  ;  but  when 
I  proposed  to  instal  mj^self  in  it,  some  natives  who  had 
accompanied  our  party,  objected,  saying  the  houses 
were  hursoiis  and  nahlctli,  having  been  cursed  by 
the  peoj^le  at  whose  expense,  and  by  whose  un- 
requited labour,  they  had  been  erected.  Even  the 
beasts,  they  said,  that  had  carried  the  heavy  loads  of 
building-materials,  were  seen  to  look  up  to  heaven  and 
groan  under  the  pressure  of  their  burdens  ;  and  a 
prophet  of  the  place  had  foretold  the  downfall  of  the 
owner  on  the  day  of  the  completion  of  the  work. 
This  prophecy  was  fulfilled  to  the  letter,  for  on  the 
day  the  Pasha  was  to  have  entered  his  new  abode,  the 
Turkish  government,  suspicious  of  his  growing  power 
and  wealth,  managed  to  lay  hands  upon  him. 

This  Deri-Bey  *  is  said  to  have  been  a  wonder- 
fully intelligent  man,  counterbalancing  many  of  his 
tyrannical  actions  by  the  zealous  care  he  showed  in 
promoting  the  mdividual  safety  of  his  people  and  in 
increasing  their  prosperity.  Though  entirely  un- 
educated, his  natural  talents  were  great  enough  to 
enable  him  to  comprehend  the  advantages  of  modern 
civilisation,  and  to  lead  him  to  introduce  some  recent 
inventions  into  the  country;  he  also  attempted  to 
render  the  river  Vardar  (the  ancient  Axius)  navigable. 

Hevni  Pasha  and  his  vo'ivodes,  or  captains,  twenty- 
five  or  thirt}^  years  ago,  may  be  looked  upon  as  the 

*  "  Valley -lord,"  or  feudal  chief. 


CH.  ix.  An  Albanian  Deri-Bey  225 

last  rej)resentatives  of  the  chiefs  of  the  wild  Albanian 
dans,  who  at  that  time  still  refused  to  recognise  the 
authority  of  the   Porte,  and  when  pressed  to  do  so 
broke   out    into    open   rebellion.      Badjuksis   Ahmet 
Pasha,     then    a    mere    colonel,    marched    with    his 
regiment  upon   Uskup,  one  of  the   principal  strong- 
holds of  the  Albanians,  and  partly  by  stratagem  and 
partly  by  threats,    managed    to    penetrate    into    the 
town    and   take    possession   of  the   fortress.     In   the 
meantime,  Frank  Omar  Pasha,  the  field  marshal,  came 
with  some  regular  troops  to   his    assistance,    having 
previously  defeated  the  Albanians  in  battle  at  Kaplan, 
and  dispersed  them  into  the  plains.     He  surrounded 
the  town,  and  invited  Hevni  Pasha  with  his  captains 
and  the  principal  beys  of  the  town  into  the  fortress  to 
hear    the    Imperial    Firman   read.       This    ceremony 
being   concluded   without    disturbance,   Hevni   Pasha 
and  such  of  his  party  as  were  likely  to  continue  their 
resistance  to  the  orders  of  the  Porte  were  requested 
by   the    military   authorities    to    mount   at   once    the 
horses   that   had   been   surreptitiously    prepared    for 
them,  and  were  conveyed  under  escort  to   Constan- 
tinople,  whence    they   were    sent    into    exile,    their 
families  being  sent  after  them,  and  their  goods  confis- 
cated.    Notice  was  next  given  to  the  rest  of  the  native 
beys,  that,  should  any  of  them  be  found  in  direct  or 
indirect  communication  Avith  the   scattered  bands   of 
Albanians,  or  sending  provisions  to  them,  the  guns  of 

VOL.  I.  Q 


2  26  The  People  of  Titrkey.  rr.  n. 

the  fortress  would  be  turned  upon  the  town,  which  wouhl 
be  razed  to  the  ground.  This  was  a  master-stroke 
on  the  part  of  the  Government ;  the  Albanians,  after  a 
few  vain  attempts  at  Monastir,  Vrania,  Philippopolis, 
and  other  places,  to  resist  the  authority  of  the  Sultan, 
partially  submitted  and  returned  to  their  impregnable 
mountain  fastnesses ;  not,  however,  without  having 
committed  some  barbarities  similar  to  those  recentl}'' 
enacted  in  Bulgaria. 

During  my  trip  to  Bazardjik,  I  visited  another 
konak :  it  belonged  to  Kavanos  Oglou,  another  of  the 
too  famous  Deri-Beys,  who  had  acquired  complete 
control  over  his  part  of  the  countr}',  and  who  was 
similarly  seized  by  the  Porte,  despoiled  of  his  posses- 
sions, and  sent  into  exile.  This  konak  was  an  immense 
(juadrangular  building,  enclosing  a  courtyard  with  a 
verandah  running  round  it  supported  on  massive 
wooden  pillars.  Upon  this  verandah  a  hundred  rooms 
opened.  The  house  was  low  and  clumsy  in  appear- 
ance, but  timber  of  remarkable  size  and  solidity  had 
been  used  in  its  construction. 

At  the  time  of  my  visit  it  was  abandoned ;  the  doors 
and  windows  had  disappeared,  giving  to  the  edifice  an 
appearance  of  solitude  and  emptiness,  rendered  still 
more  dismal  by  the  presence  of  innumerable  bats 
and  owls,  its  only  occupants.  The  old  dungeon  with 
its  cruel  associations  could  still  be  traced  in  a  low 
building,  about  thirty  feet  long  and  twenty  wide,  sur- 


cii.  IX.  An  Albanian  Princess.  227 

rounded  by  a  wall  of  immense  thickness  and  strongly- 
roofed.  For  windows  nothing  was  seen  but  a  few  slits. 
The  interior  on  one  side  was  occupied  by  a  double 
wall,  with  just  enough  space  between  to  admit  a 
person  in  a  standing  position ;  in  this  the  offenders 
against  the  laws,  and  the  victims  of  vendetta,  were 
squeezed,  secured  by  heavy  chains  that  hung  at  equal 
distances  from  iron  rings.  A  well,  now  filled  up, 
occupied  the  centre,  into  which  the  Leads  of  decapi- 
tated prisoners  were  thrown  to  disappear  in  the  dismal 
darkness  of  its  depths. 

I  was  not  sorry  to  leave  this  cheerless  scene  of  former 
despotism  and  present  decay,  and  to  turn  my  steps 
towards  a  gate  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  garden 
leading  into  a  kiosk  more  modern  in  appearance  than 
the  house,  though  bearing  traces  of  decay.  This  last 
refuge  of  a  once  powerful  family  was  occupied  by 
Azizie  Hanoum  Effendi,  the  much  respected  widow  of 
the  tyrant.  Her  two  sons,  who  occupied  inferior  posi- 
tions under  Government,  were  absent.  The  descend- 
ants of  Kavanos  Oglou  continue  to  be  much  respected 
in  the  country  in  sj^ite  of  their  downfall  and  the  con- 
fiscation of  their  property.  The  venerable  lady  into 
whose  presence  I  was  ushered  bore,  notwithstand- 
ing her  advanced  age,  traces  of  a  beauty  that  must 
have  been  i)erfect  in  its  bloom.  She  was  a  fine 
tall  blonde  of  the  Circassian  type,  of  a  commanding 
appearance,   softened  by  the  sweet   dignity  of  fallen 

Q  2 


2  28  The  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  h. 

sovereignty,  before  whom  I  felt  I  could  bow  the  knee 
and  kiss  tlie  hand  she  graciously  extended  to  me. 
I  had  a  long  and  interesting  conversation  with  her 
on  the  state  of  the  countr}^  which  she  described  as 
having  been  more  flourishing  under  the  rule  of  her 
husband  than  at  this  time.  "  But,"  said  she,  with  a 
sigh,  *'  God  ordains  all  things,  casting  some  into  mis- 
fortunes and  raising  others  into  prosperity,  according 
as  Kismet  has  prepared  for  all.     Allah  Kerim  !  " 

Everyone  has  heard  or  read  of  a  kiosk,  the  in- 
dispensable pleasure-seat  of  a  Turk.  The  imperial 
and  other  kiosks  on  the  Bosphorus  are  miniature 
palaces,  luxuriously  furnished,  whose  elegance  and 
beauty  are  only  equalled  by  the  incomparable 
advantages  of  their  situation  on  the  richest  of  soils, 
and  beneath  the  sunniest  of  skies.  Kiosks  may  be 
situated  anywhere,  and  may  comprise  a  suite  of  apart- 
ments or  be  limited  to  one  ;  the}''  are  light  and  airy  in 
st^'le,  generally  commanding  a  fine  prospect,  often 
floored  with  marble,  and  containing  a  shadravan  or 
sculptured  fountain  playing  in  the  midst ;  a  range  of 
sofas  runs  all  round  the  walls,  on  which  the  Turk 
loves  to  sit  for  hours  together  lost  in  meditation, 
and  in  the  fumes  of  his  inseparable  companion  the 
nargile. 

The  interiors  of  old  kiosks  and  konaks  used 
to  be  ornamented  with  a  pecuHar  open  woodwork  of 


cir.  IX. 


Koiilas.  229 


arabesque  design  decorating  the  walls  and  ceilings, 
but  this  is  now  completely  out  of  fashion.  The 
ceiling  of  a  house  I  formerly  inhabited  was  decorated 
with  this  work,  and  attracted  the  attention  of  all 
travellers.  One,  an  Englishman,  was  so  much  struck 
with  it  on  entering  the  room,  that  hardly  had  he 
bowed  to  the  company  before  he  asked  permission 
to  make  a  sketch  of  it.  We  were  so  accustomed  to 
similar  display's  of  originality  in  Britiith  tourists  that 
the  request  was  at  once  granted. 

A  Uovila  is  a  high  turret  found  on  every  large  cliift- 
lik,  or  farm,  and  used  as  a  refuge  in  case  of  assault  by 
brigands ;  it  is  a  quadrangular  edifice,  from  three  to 
four  stories  high ;  the  lowest  is  used  as  a  granary  and 
for  storing  seeds  and  other  valuable  property  be- 
longing to  the  farm  ;  the  others,  light  and  aiiy,  are 
reserved  for  the  habitation  of  the  owner  of  the  chiftliks 
during  his  occasional  visits  to  his  property. 

Tlie  last  strongliold  of  this  description  I  visited  was 
the  property  of  a  British  subject  in  the  district  of 
Salonika.  It  was  solidly  constructed,  with  massive 
iron  doors  and  shutters,  and  some  years  ago  resisted 
the  assault  of  a  band  of  brigands  who  besieged  it 
for  three  days,  till  the  arrival  of  a  corps  of  Zap- 
tielis  occasioned  their  hasty  disappearance.  The 
marks  of  their  bullets  may  still  be  seen  on  the 
doors  and  shutters,  but  no  further  damage  was 
done. 


230  The  People  of  TurJzcy.  ft.  n. 

There  is  no  very  marked  difierence  between  the 
quarters  of  the  town  occupied  by  Christians  and  those 
occupied  by  Turks.  The  Christians'  houses  are  built 
very  much  in  the  same  style,  though  they  are  not  so 
hirge,  and  open  directly  on  the  street,  with  shojos  in 
their  lower  stories  in  the  principal  thoroughfares. 
The  windows  are  free  from  the  lattices  invariably  seen 
in  a  Turkish  haremlik.  There  is  much  more  life  and 
a,nimation  in  a  Christian  or  Jewish  quarter,  partly  in 
consequence  of  one  house  being  occupied  by  several 
families.  This  is  especially'  the  case  among  the  lower 
orders  of  Jews,  where  one  mav  count  as  many  families 
as  there  are  rooms  in  a  house. 

In  most  Eastern  towns  the  Jewish  quarters,  con- 
taining the  fish,  meat,  and  vegetable  markets,  are  the 
most  unclean,  and  consequently  the  most  unhealthy. 
Few  sanitary  regulations  exist,  and  little  attention  is 
paid  to  them  or  to  the  laws  of  hygiene.  The  streets 
are  frequently  nearly  impassable,  and  some  of  the 
dwellings  of  the  poor  are  pestilential,  the  hotbeds  of 
every  epidemic  that  visits  the  country. 

Most  of  the  ancient  khans,  warehouses,  and  bazars 
at  Stamboul,  and  in  large  provincial  towns,  are  fine 
solidl)'  constructed  edifices.  The  bazars  are  of  a 
peculiarly  Oriental  style  of  architecture,  and  appear 
well  adapted  to  the  use  for  which  they  were  designed 
— the  display  and  sale  of  goods.  In  the  interior, 
however,  many   of  these  bazars    are  neglected,   and 


CII.   IX. 


Khans.  231 


some  left  to  decay  have  been  by  degrees  abandoned 
by  the  tenants  of  the  mnunierable  shops  they  once 
contamed. 

The  cJiafsJil,  or  market-place,  consists  of  an  in- 
congruous assemblage  of  shops,  huddled  together 
without  any  attempt  at  architecture  or  regard  to  ap- 
pearances ;  for  the  most  part  protected  only  by  large 
shutters  that  are  raised  in  the  morning  and  lowered 
at  night.  A  low  platform  of  boards  occupies  the 
greater  part  of  the  interior,  in  the  front  corner  of 
which  the  shopkeeper  sits  on  a  little  carpet,  cross- 
legged,  with  a  wooden  safe  by  his  side  and  his  account- 
book  and  pipe  within  easy  reach,  ever  ready  to  attend 
to  the  wants  of  his  customers.  Rows  of  shelves,  con- 
structed in  recesses  in  the  Avails,  serve  as  receptacles 
for  his  goods. 

The  Jcluins,  or  warehouses,  m  towns  are  used  as 
deposits  for  merchandise  and  for  the  transaction  of 
business  by  merchants  and  bankers  who  have  offices 
in  them.  A  series  of  hosteMes  of  all  descriptions  and 
dimensions,  also  called  khans,  some  built  of  stone  and 
others  of  timber,  exist  in  large  numbers  in  all  parts  of 
the  country,  serving  as  hotels  to  travellers  and  store- 
rooms for  merchandise  during  transit.  The  ruins  of 
the  most  ancient  of  these,  built  by  the  Turks  at  the 
time  of  the  conquest  and  used  by  them  as  blocldiouses, 
still  exist  on  the  main  roads  and  in  some  of  the 
principal   towns.     By   the   side   of  these    substantial 


'i^i  The  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  n. 


-o- 


stone  buildings  have  arisen  a  number  of  miserable 
edifices  dignified  with  the  name  of  khan,  with  whose 
discomfoi-ts  the  weary  traveller  too  often  makes  sad 
acquaintance. 

The  furniture  of  wealthy  Greek  houses  in  Con- 
stantinople is  Eui'opean ;  in  those  of  Jews  and 
Armenians  of  high  position  it  is  a  compromise  be- 
tween European  and  Turkish.  All  Orientals  are  fond 
of  display ;  they  like  to  build  large  houses  and  orna- 
ment their  reception  rooms  in  a  gaudy  manner ;  but 

the   ensemble   lacks  finish   and    comfort.     At   A 

I  had  fixed  upon  an  old  Turkish  konak  as  my  re- 
sidence ;  but  on  coming  to  inhabit  it  I  discovered 
that  extensive  alterations  and  improvements  must  be 
made  before  it  approached  in  the  remotest  degree  to 
my  idea  of  an  English  home.  Some  officious  person, 
at  a  loss  to  understand  the  object  of  these  changes, 
gave  notice  to  tlie  proprietor  that  his  tenant  Avas 
fast  demolishing  his  house,  upon  which  the  good  old 
Turk  asked  if  she  were  building  it  up  again,  and 
being  answered  in  the  affirmative,  quietly  said,  ''  Brak 
yupsen  !  {laissez  /aire  ! ) 

The  furniture  found  in  the  dwellings  of  all  the 
lower  classes  is  much  the  same  throughout  the 
country;  a  Turkish  sofa,  a  few  deal  chaii's,  and  a 
table  serving  for  every  purpose.  The  bedding  is 
placed  on  the  floor  at  night  and  removed  in  the 
morning.     But  if  furniture  is  scanty,  there  is  no  lack 


cH.  IX.  The  Bath.  233 

of  carpets   and    copper   kitchen   utensils,  both  being 
considered  good  investments  by  the  poor. 

Before  concluding  this  chapter  I  must  not  forget  to 
describe    one    of   the    most  necessary  adjuncts    to    a 
Turkish    house — the    bath.      In    a    large    house    or 
konak,  this  is  by  far  the  best  fitted  and  most  useful 
part   of  the    whole   establishment.     A   Turkish  bath 
comprises    a    suite    of  three   rooms ;    the    first — the 
hammam — is  a  square  apartment  chiefly  constructed 
of  marble,  and  terminating  in  a  kind  of  cupola  studded 
with  a  number  of  glass  bells,  through  Avhich  the  light 
enters.     A  deep  reservoir',  attached  to  the  outer  wall, 
with   an  opening  into  the   bath,   contains  the   water, 
half  of  which  is   heated   by  a  furnace   built  under  it. 
A  number  of  pipes,  attached  to  the  furnace,  circulate 
through  the  walls  of  the  bath  and  throw  great  heat 
into  it.     One  or  two   graceful  fountains  conduct  the 
water  from  the  reservoir',  and   on   each  side  of  the 
fountain  is  a  low  wooden  platform  which  serves  as  a 
seat  for  the  bather,  who  sits  cross-legged,  and  under- 
goes a  long  and   complicated  process  of  washing  and 
scrubbing,  with  a  variety  of  other  toilet  arrangements 
too  numerous  to  mention. 

The  second  room,  called  the  saouJdouk,  is  con- 
structed very  much  in  the  same  style  as  the  first,  but 
is  smaller,  and  has  no  furniture  but  a  marble  platform 
upon  which  mattresses  and  cushions  are  placed  for  the 
use  of  those  who  wish  to    repose    between  intervals 


234  T^i^  People  of  Turkey.  w.  w. 

of  batliing,  or  do  not  wish  to  face  the  cooler  tempera- 
lure  of  the  hammam  oda.  This  room  is  furnished  with 
sofas,  on  which  tlie  bathers  rest  and  dress  after  quitting 
the  bath. 

Turkish  women  are  very  fond  of  their  bath,  and  are 
capable  of  remaining  for  hours  together  in  that  hot 
and  depressing  atmosphere.     They  smoke  cigarettes, 
eat  fruits  and  sweets,  and  drink  sherbet,  and   finally, 
after  all  the  blood  has  rushed  to  their  heads,  and  their 
faces    are   crimson,    they    wrap    themselves    in    soft 
burnouses,  and  pass  into  the  third  or  outer  chamber, 
where  they  repose  on  a  luxurious  couch  until  their 
sj'stem  shakes  off  part  of  the  heat  and  languor  that  the 
abuse   of  these   baths   invariably   produces.     A  bath 
being  an  indisi^ensable  appendage  to  every  house,  one 
is  to  be  found  in  even  the  poorest  Turkish  dwelling. 
Some    more    or   less   resemble    a    regular    hammam, 
others  are  of  a  very  simple  form — often  a  tiny  cabinet 
attached  to  one  of  the  rooms,  containing  a  bottomless 
jar  buried  in  the   ground,  through  which  the   water 
runs.     I  consider  these  little  baths,  which  are  neither 
expensive  nor  requii'e  much  space,  excellent  institu- 
tions in   the   houses  of  the  poor  as   instruments   of 
cleanliness.     The    constant   and  careful   ablutions  of 
the    Turk   are    the    principal    preventives   to    many 
diseases,  from  which  they  are,  comj^aratively  spealdng, 
freer  than  most  nations. 

The  public  baths,  resorted  to  by  all  classes,  are  to 


CH.  IX.  Public  Hammams.  235 

be  found  in  numbers  in  ever}'  town.  They  are  fine 
buildings,  exact  copies  of  the  okl  Roman  baths,  many 
■of  which  are  still  in  existence,  defying  the  march  of 
•centuries  and  the  work  of  decay.  Like  the  home 
baths,  they  consist  of  three  spacious  apartments.  Tlie 
outer  bath-room  is  a  large  stone  building  lighted  by  a 
cupola,  with  wooden  platforms  running  all  round,  upon 
which  small  mattresses  and  couches  are  spread  for  the 
men ;  but  the  women  not  having  the  same  privilege, 
are  obliged  to  bring  their  own  rugs,  upon  which  they 
deposit  their  clothes,  tied  up  in  bundles,  when  they 
enter,  and  repose  and  dress  upon  them  on  coming  out 
of  the  bath.  A  fountain  of  cold  water  is  considered 
indispensable  in  this  apartment,  and  in  the  basin  sur- 
rounding it  may  be  seen  water-melons  floating  about, 
placed  there  to  cool  while  their  owners  are  in  the 
inner  bath. 

The  bath  itself  contains  a  number  of  small  rooms, 
each  of  which  can  be  separately  engaged  by  a  part}^,  or 
used  in  common  with  tlie  other  bathers.  It  is  need- 
less to  say  that  the  baths  used  by  men  are  either 
separate  or  are  open  at  different  hours. 

Turkish  women,  independently  of  their  home  baths, 
must  resort  at  least  once  a  month  to  the  public 
hcvnmimn.  They  like  it  for  many  reasons,  but  prin- 
cipally because  it  is  the  onl}^  place  where  they  can 
meet  to  chat  over  the  news  of  the  day  and  their  family 
affairs. 


236  The  People  of  Turkey.  n.  n. 

Some  of  these  baths,  especially  the  mmeral  ones  at 
Broussa,  are  of  the' finest  description.  Gurgutly,  con- 
taining the  sulphureous  springs,  is  renowned  for  the 
remarkable  efficac}'  of  its  waters,  its  immense  size, 
and  the  elegant  and  curious  style  of  its  architecture. 
It  comprises  two  very  large  apartments,  one  for  the 
use  of  the  bathers  previous  to  their  entering  the  bath,, 
the  other  the  bath  itself.  This  is  an  immense  room 
with  niches  all  round  containing  fountains  in  the 
form  of  shells,  which  receive  part  of  the  running 
stream ;  in  front  of  these  are  Avooden  platforms,  on 
which  the  bathers  collect  for  the  purpose  of  washing 
their  heads  and  scrubbing  their  bodies.  On  the  left 
as  you  enter  stands  an  immense  marble  basin,  seven 
feet  in  length  and  three  in  width,  into  which  the 
mother  stream  gushes  with  impetuous  force.  From 
this  it  runs  into  a  large  round  basin  about  ten  feet  in 
depth,  in  which  dozens  of  w^omen  and  children  may 
be  seen  swimming,  an  exhausting  process,  owing  to 
the  high  temperature  of  the  water  and  its  suli)hureous 
qualities.  This  wonderful  basin  is  in  the  shape  of  a 
reversed  dome,  sunk  into  the  marble  floor,  which  is 
supi^orted  underneath  by  massive  columns. 

Coffee-houses  are  to  be  met  with  everywhere,  and 
are  very  numerous  in  the  towns.  The  Turks  resort 
to  them  when  they  leave  their  homes  early  in  the 
morning,  to  take  a  cup  of  coffee  and  smoke  a  nargile 
before  going  to  business.     In  the  evening,  too,  they 


en.  IX.  Cqffec-Houscs.  237 


step  in  to  have  a,  chat  with  theu'  neighbours  and  hear 
the  news  of  the  day.  Turkish  newspapers  have  be- 
come pretty  common  of  late  in  these  quiet  rendezvous, 
and  are  to  be  found  in  the  most  unpretending  ones. 
Few  of  these  estabhshments  possess  an  inviting  ex- 
terior or  can  boast  any  arrangements  with  regard  to 
comfort  or  accommodation  ;  a  few  mats  placed  upon 
benches,  and  a  number  of  common  osier-seated  chairs 
and  stools  are  the  seats  aftbrded  in  them.  Small 
gardens  may  be  found  attached  to  some,  while  others 
atone  for  the  deficiencies  of  their  interioi's  by  the 
lovely  situations  they  occupy  in  this  picturesque  and 
luxurious  land. 


CHAPTER   X. 

THE    SERAGLIO. 

The  Chain  of  Palaces  along  the  Bosphor as— &Jii  Serai,  the  Oldest  of 
the  Seraglios— Its  Site  and  Appearance — Beauty  of  its  Gardens 
— Contrasts— Its  DeatTuction—Bolma-Bfif/ohe  and  Befiler-Bey — 
Enormons  Expenditure  of  Abdul-Medjid  and  Abdul-Aziz  on 
Seraglios— ra/tK*  or  Villas — Begler-Bcy  Furnished  for  Illus- 
trious Guests — Delicate  Attentions  of  the  Sultan— Furniture  of 
Seraglios  —  Mania  of  Abdul-Aziz  —  Everything  Inflammable 
thrown  into  the  Bosphorus — Pleasure  Grounds — Interior  Divi- 
sions of  the  Seraglio — The  Mi i  bey  ti — The  Padishah  e»  neglige — 
Imperial  Expenditiire — Servants,  &c. — Food — Wages—  Stables — 
Fine  Art — Origin  of  the  Inmates  of  the  Seraglio— Their  Training 
■ — Adjemis — A  Training-School  for  the  Seraglio — Ranks  in  the 
Seraglio— The  Banh  Kadln  Effcndi  and  other  Wives— Ilanonms 
or  Odalisks — Favourites — Equal  Chances  of  Good  Fortune — 
Ceremonies  Attending  the  Sultan's  Selection  of  an  Odalisk — A 
Slave  seldom  sees  the  Sultan  more  than  Once — Consequent  Loss 
of  Dignity  and  Misery  for  the  rest  of  her  Life — Precarious 
Position  of  Imperial  Favourites— Intrigues  and  Cabals  in  the 
Seraglio — Good  Fortune  of  the  Odalisk  who  bears  a  Child — 
Fashions  in  Bea.uty — Golden  Hair — The  VaUde  Sidtann — The 
Ilasnadar  Oiista — Ignorance  and  Vice  of  the  Seraglio  Women — 
The  Better  Class — The  Consumptive  Class— The  "  Wild  Serailis" 
— Amusements  of  the  Seraglio — Theatre — Ballet — Shopping — • 
Garden  Parties  in  Abdul-Medjid's  Time— Imperial  Children — 
Foster-Brothers  —  Bad  Training  and  Deficient  Education  of 
Turkish  Princes  and  Princesses. 

There  are  more  than  twent}^  Imperial  Palaces, 
variously  named,  according  to  their  size  and  character, 
seraglios,  yahlis,  and  kiosks,  scattered  about  Con- 
stantinople, some  on  the  Bosphorus,  others  inland, 
but  all  equally  to  be  admired  as  striking  spectacles  of 


CH.  X. 


Eski  Serai.  239 


Eastern  magnificence.    Dolma-Bagche  and  Besliilvtash, 
linked   with    other    mansions    and    kiosks,    mingling 
European  architecture  with  Oriental  decoration,  form 
a    chain    of  splendid   palaces    such   as    can   be    seen 
nowhere  but  on  the  historic  shores  of  the  Bosphorus. 
The   most   renowned  of  the   Ottoman  palaces  was 
Eski  Serai,  on  the  point  of  land  where  the  Bosphorus 
enters  the  Sea  of  Marmora.     Built  on  the  site   of  old 
Byzantium  by  Mehemet  II.,  this  celebx'ated  palace  was 
enlarged  and  beautified  according  to   the   wants  and 
caprices  of  each  successive  sultan.     It  presented  to 
the  eye  a  crowded  pile   of  vast  irregular   buildings, 
crowned   by   gilded    cupolas     and     girt    with    shaded 
gardens.     Beautiful   mosques,    varied   with    hospitals 
and  other  charitable  foundations,  were  scattered  about 
in  detached  groups,  amid  clusters  of  stately  cypresses 
and  the  burial-grounds  of  kings.     Here  might  be  seen 
a   gorgeous  pavilion,  there  a  cool  jet,   here  again  a 
mysterious  building  with  high  impenetrable  walls  and 
latticed  windows,   the  monotonous    dwelling-place   of 
bright    young    creatures    who,    once    engaged,    were 
rarel}'  permitted  to  regain  their  freedom.     And  there, 
dwarfing  all  else,  rose  the  tall  white  minarets,  accent- 
ing their  clear  outlines  against  the  tender  sky  of  the 
East.     In  this  irregular  confusion  the   artist  saw  one 
of  the    choicest    sights   of  the   capital;  and  a  closer 
view  offered  to  the  curious  a  clear  and  mmute  concep- 
tion of  the  palace  of  an  Eastern  despot. 


240  The  People  oj  Turkey.  w.  ir. 


All  was  there  :  the  gor<veous  and  the   squalid,  tlie 
refined  and  the  loathsome,  the  splendid  state  rooms  of 
the  Vicar  of  God,  beside  the  gloomy  cages  of  those 
unhappy  princes,  who,  cursed  by  their  royal   blood, 
were  left  to  pine  in  solitude,  until  death  came  to  settle 
accounts   between   them   and    the    tj^rants   who   had 
doomed  them  to  their  chains.     There  were  the  chari- 
table  establishments  whence  the  poor   never  turned 
away  unrefreshed, — and  there  the  dungeon  where  the 
powerful  were  left  to  starve  and  die.     There  was  the 
gilded  kiosk  where  the  Padishah  smoked  his  chibouk 
and  issued   his    decrees, — whose   terrible   ordinances 
were   carried  out  in  the   adjoining  chamber-of-blood. 
Bej'ond  were  the  mausoleums  of  his   race,  lifting  up 
their  rich  adornment  in  the  chill  beauty  of  the  city  of 
the  dead — severed  by  a  little  space  from  the  scarcely 
more    splendid    dwellmgs   of  the   living.      There  lay 
those  doomed  princes  to  whom  a  life  without  liberty 
and  ofttimes  a  cruel  death  were  ill  balanced  hy  the  use- 
less splendour  of  their  tombs.     "  Wliat  is  the   use   of 
th}"-  getting  children,"  once  with  a  mother's  bitterness 
said  a  Circassian  slave  who  had  borne  a  son  to  one 
of  the  sultans,  "  when  they  are  only  destined  to  peoi:>le 
the  tombs?" 

In  later  times  Eski  Serai  was  abandoned  to  the  use 
of  the  harems  of  deceased  sultans,  who  Avere  some- 
times shut  up  there  for  life.  Its  last  occupants,  the 
multitudes  of  wives,   slaves,   and  odalisks  belonging 


cu.  X.  Dolma-Bag'chd.  241 

once  to  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid,  unable  any  longer  to 
endure  its  dismal  solitude,  are  reported  to  have  set  it 
on  fire  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  a  dwelling  more  con- 
genial to  the  habits  of  comparative  liberty  they  had 
acquired.  At  all  events  the  palace  was  destroyed,  and 
a  vast  number  of  valuable  and  rare  objects  perished 
with  it.  The  site  is  now  occupied  by  gardens,  and  a 
railroad  runs  across  it :  the  gem  of  the  Golden  Horn 
has  vanished. 

Dolma-Bagche,  built  by  Sultan  Mahmoud  II.,  was 
a  large  Avooden  edifice.  This  and  Begler-Bey  became 
the  usual  winter  and  summer  residences  of  the  im- 
perial family.  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid,  on  coming  to 
power,  rebuilt  Dolma-Bagche  and  several  other  kiosks 
and  seraglios.  Gentle,  sensitive,  refined,  and  loth  to 
shed  blood,  he  is  said  to  have  evinced  a  superstitious 
aversion  to  the  old  imperial  palaces  whose  splendour 
was  tainted  by  the  memorj'  of  the  crimes  of  his 
ancestors.  He,  and  still  more  his  brother  Abdul- 
Aziz,  spent  incalculable  sums  in  the  erection  and 
decoration  of  seraglios.  The  latter's  yearl}^  expenses  on 
this  alone  were  reckoned  to  have  exceeded  £580,000  : 
— one  of  the  items  which  ran  away  with  the  money 
which  trusting  or  speculative  capitalists  of  Europe 
had  been  foolish  enough  to  supply  for  the  future 
benefit  and  improvement  of  Turkey  (not,  of  course, 
forgetting  a  slice  in  the  pie  for  themselves),  but  which 
has  fallen  somewhat  short  of  the  end  for  which  it  was 

VOL.  I.  B 


242  The  People  of  TtirJcey.  rx.  ti. 

designed  :  Turkish  bondholders  do  not  seem  to 
consider  themselves  of  all  men  the  most  fortu- 
nate, and  Turkey  itself  has  not  gained  by  loading 
its  exchequer  with  a  mountain  of  debt  for  the 
sake  of  the  reckless  extravagance  of  imperial 
luxur}^ 

Holding  a  middle  place  between  the  great  palaces 
and  the  kiosks,  the  sultans  of  Turkey  possess  yahlis  or 
villas  not  less  beautiful  than  the  mansions  of  greater 
j)retensions.  These  villas  often  rise  on  the  shores 
of  the  Bosphorus  from  a  bed  of  verdure.  Generally 
they  are  closed  and  silent,  with  a  solitar}'  guard 
standing  sentinel  at  the  gate  :  but  ever}'  now  and  then 
one  of  them  may  be  seen  lighted  up,  as  by  magic, 
and  teeming  with  life,  with  the  rumbling  of  carriages 
to  and  fro,  and  the  clashing  of  arms.  At  the  sound 
of  the  trumpet  a  strain  of  sweet  music  strikes  up, 
and  the  approach  of  a  water-procession  of  caiques 
swiftly  gliding  towards  the  gates  announces  the  arrival 
of  the  august  master. 

Sometimes  the  sultan  goes  alone  to  spend  a  few 
hours  of  dolce  far  niente ;  at  others  he  makes  an 
appointment  with  some  special  favourite  to  meet  him 
there.  Abdul-Medjid's  known  partiality  for  Bessimd 
Sultana,  the  most  worthless  but  most  beloved  of  his 
wives,  induced  him  on  one  occasion,  while  on  a  visit 
to  his  Yahli  at  the  sweet  waters  of  Asia,  to  send  his 
own  yacht  for  her  in  the  dead  of  night,  alanning  the 


cii.  X.  Bcgler-Bey.  243 

whole  seraglio  by  its  unexpected  appearance  at  so 
unusual  an  hour. 

One  of  the  three  palaces  most  renowned  for  beauty 
of  architecture  and  magnificence  of  furniture  is  Begler- 
Bey.  It  is  Avorthy  of  the  use  for  which  it  has  been 
selected,  of  being  the  palace  offered  for  the  occupation 
of  illustrious  foreign  visitors.  The  arrangements 
made  in  it  for  one  imperial  guest  were  presided  over 
by  Sultan  Abdul- Aziz  in  person,  and  the  private 
apartments  of  the  illustrious  lady  were  perfect  copies 
of  those  in  her  own  palace.  The  fastidiousness  of  the 
host  on  this  occasion  was  so  great,  that  on  discover- 
ing that  the  tints  on  the  walls  and  furniture  slightly 
differed  from  those  he  had  seen  when  on  his  European 
tour,  he  ordered  that  everything  should  be  removed 
and  new  ones  brought  from  Paris.  The  fair  visitor  is 
said  to  have  been  equally  surprised  and  flattered  by 
the  delicate  attention  that  had  not  omitted  even  the 
smallest  object  of  her  toilet  table.  The  Sultan,  in 
truly  Oriental  fashion,  caused  a  new  pair  of  magnifi- 
cent slippers,  embroidered  with  pearls  and  precious 
stones,  to  be  placed  before  her  bed  every  morning. 

Since  the  time  of  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid,  the  furni- 
ture of  the  imperial  palaces  and  kiosks  has  been  made 
to  order  in  Europe.  It  is  of  so  costly  a  description 
as  to  be  equal  in  value  to  the  edifices  themselves.  On 
entering  Tcheragan,  and   some  of  the   other  serails, 

the  eye  is  dazzled  by  the  gilt  decorations,  gold  and 

E  2 


244  ^'^^  People  of  Tiwkcy.  w.  n. 

silver  brocades,  splendid  mirrors  and  chandeliers,  and 
carved  and  inlaid  furniture  they  contain.  In  Abdul- 
Medjid's  time,  clocks  and  china  vases  were  the  only 
ornaments  of  the  apartments.  The  absence  of  pic- 
tui'es,  books,  and  the  thousand  different  objects  with 
which  Europeans  fill  their  houses,  gave  the  rooms, 
even  when  inhabited,  a  comfortless  and  unused  ap- 
pearance. 

Some  years  ago,  when  visiting  the  private  apart- 
ments of  this  Sultan,  I  noticed  a  splendid  antique 
vase.  Lately,  on  speaking  of  this  priceless  object  to 
a  seraglio  lady,  I  was  informed  that  it  had  been 
thrown  into  the  Bosphorus  by  order  of  its  owner. 
This  act  of  imperial  extravagance  was  caused  by  the 
supposition  that  the  vase  had  been  handled  by  some 
person  afflicted  with  consumption. 

Sultan  Abdul-Aziz,  a  year  or  two  before  his  de- 
thronement, possessed  with  a  nervous  terror  of  fire, 
caused  all  inflammable  articles  to  be  taken  out  of  the 
palaces,  and  replaced  them  by  articles  manufactured 
of  iron.  The  stores  of  fuel  were  cast  into  the  Bos- 
phorus, and  the  lights  of  the  Sultan's  apart)nents 
were  placed  in  basins  of  water.  The  houses  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Seraglio  were  purchased  by  the 
Sultan,  their  occupants  forced  to  quit  at  a  very  short 
notice,  theu-  furniture  turned  out,  and  the  buildmgs 
pulled  down  at  once.  These  tyrannical  precautions 
served   to   heighten   the   general   discontent    of    the 


CH.  \.  Pleasiire-gromids.  245 

capital  against  the  Padishah,  especiall}'  among  the 
poor,  who  justly  complained  that  they  might  have 
benefited  by  what  had  been  wasted ;  while  some  of  the 
wealth}',  though  not  more  contented,  profited  by  the 
freak,  and  carried  off  many  of  the  ricli  objects  taken 
out  of  the  palace. 

The  vast  pleasure  grounds  attached  to  the  seraglios 
are  laid  out  with  a  tasteful  care,  which,  added  to  the 
beauty  of  the  position  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil, 
goes  far  to  justify  the  renown  of  the  gardens  of  tlie 
Bosphorus.  The  hills,  valleys,  and  gorges  that  sur- 
round them  are  covered  with  woods ;  here  orchards 
and  vineyards,  weighed  down  with  their  rich  burdens, 
lend  colour  to  the  scene ;  there  the  slo^jes  are  laid  out 
in  terraces,  whose  perpendicular  sides  are  clothed 
with  the  contrasted  shades  of  the  sombre  ivy-leaf 
and  the  bright  foliage  of  the  Virginian  creeper. 
Banks  of  flowers  carry  the  thoughts  back  to  the 
hanging  gardens  of  Babylon.  Nature  and  art  have 
ornamented  these  delightful  spots  with  lakes,  foun- 
tains, cascades,  aviaries,  menageries,  and  pavilions. 
"Here  in  cool  grot"  every  opportunity  is  offered 
for  love-making,  and  if  this  one  is  already  engaged, 
there  are  highly  romantic  nooks,  concealed  by  over- 
hanging boughs,  that  will  answer  the  purjjose  as  well. 
Trees  and  plants  seem  to  rejoice  in  the  bright  sun- 
shine ;  the  birds'  songs  mingle  strangely  with  the  roar 
of  the  wild  beasts  from  which  the  Sultan  is  perhaps 


246  TJlc  People  of  Turkey.  rx.  n. 

trying  to  learn  a  lesson  of  humanity ;  and  gorgeous 
butterflies  hover  round,  kissing  the  sweet  blossoms 
that  fill  the  air  with  their  fragrance.  Here  the  ladies 
of  the  harem,  when  joermitted  to  escape  for  a  time 
from  their  cages,  roam  at  liberty  Hke  a  troop  of 
school-girls  during  recreation  hours,  some  making  for 
the  orchards,  others  dispersing  in  the  vmeyards,  with 
screams  of  laughter  and  wild  frolic  that  would  astonish 
considerably  any  European  garrlen  j)arty.  The  con- 
servatories and  flower  beds  suffer  terribly  during  these 
incursions,  and  great  is  the  despair  of  the  head- 
gardener.* 

A  Seraglio,  like  all  Moslem  dwellings,  is  divided 
into  Haremlik  and  Selamlik.  The  former  is  resei-ved 
for  tlie  family  life  of  the  Sultan  and  his  women  ;  the 
latter  is  accessible  to  officials  who  come  to  transact 
state  busmess  with  his  Highness.  The  Mabeyn  con- 
sists of  a  number  of  rooms  between  the  two  great 
divisions,  and  may  be  considered  the  private  home  of 
the  Sultan.  It  is  here  that  the  Padishah  resorts 
between  nine  and  ten  in  the  morning,  attired  in  his 
gedJUk  or  morning  negUge  ;  consisting  of  a  tCKkc,  or 
white  skull-cap ;  a  bright-coloured  intari  (dressing- 
gown)  and  eichdon  (trousers)  of  similar  material ;  a  pair 
of  roomy  terliks  (slippers),  a  kirka  (quilted  jacket),  or  a 
kirk  (pelisse  lined  with  fur),  according  to  the  season. 


*  Generally  a   European,  who   often   attains  to  hiarh   rank   and 
fortune. 


en.  X.  Imperial  Expenditure.  247 

Thus  attired,  he  resorts  to  his  study  and  gives 
his  attention  to  state  affairs,  or  to  any  other  occu- 
pations that  suit  his  tastes  and  inclinations.  Close 
by  are  the  apartments  where  the  gentlemen  of 
the  household,  the  private  secretaries,  and  other 
functionaries,  await  their  Imperial  Master  from 
sunrise. 

An  account  I  recently  saw  of  the  Imperial  expendi- 
ture estimated  the  annual  outlay  of  Sultan  Abdul- 
Aziz  at  i'2,000,000.  The  Palace  contained  5500 
servants  of  both  sexes.  The  Idtchens  alone  required 
300  functionaries,  and  the  stables  400.  There  were 
also  about  400  caikjis  or  boatmen,  400  musicians,  and 
200  attendants  who  had  the  charge  of  the  menageries 
and  aviaries.  Three  hundred  guards  were  employed 
for  the  various  palaces  and  kiosks,  and  about  100 
porters.  The  harem,  besides  this,  contained  1200 
female  slaves. 

In  the  Selamlik  might  be  counted  from  1000  to 
1500  servants  of  different  kinds.  The  Sultan  had 
twenty-five  "  aides  de  camp,"  seven  chamberlains,  six 
secretaries,  and  at  least  150  other  functionaries, 
divided  into  classes,  each  having  its  special  employ- 
ment. 

One  is  entrusted  with  the  care  of  the  Imperial 
wardrobe,  another  with  the  pantry,  a  tliu'd  with  the 
making  and  serving  of  the  coffee,  and  a  fourth  with 
the  pipes  and  cigarettes. 


248  The  People  of  l^iirkey.  i>t.  n. 

There  were  also  numberless  attendants  wlio  carried 
either  a  torch,  or  a  jug  of  perfumed  water  for  ablu- 
tions after  a  repast.  There  is  a  chief  barber,  a 
superior  attendant  who  has  special  charge  of  the 
games  of  backgammon  and  draughts,  another  super- 
intends tlie  braziers,  and  there  are  at  least  fifty 
kavasses,  and  one  hundred  eunuchs  ;  and  the  harem  has 
also  at  its  service  a  hundred  servants  for  going  on 
errands  and  doing  commissions  in  Stamboul  and  Pera. 

Altogether,  the  total  number  of  the  emplo3'es  of  the 
Palace  is  about  5500.  But  this  is  not  all;  these 
servants  employ  also  other  persons  beneath  them,  so 
that  every  day  7000  persons  are  fed  at  the  expense  of 
the  Palace.  So  great  is  the  disorder  in  the  organisa- 
tion that  the  contractors  claim  five  francs  per  diem  for 
the  food  of  each  of  these  7000  persons,  which  amounts 
to  £511,000  per  annum  for  the  employes  only. 

The  various  items  comprise  <£1120  for  wood,  .£1040 
for  rice,  and  £16,000  for  sugar. 

The  wages  of  emploj^es  included  in  the  civil  list, 
amounted  to  a  total  of  £200,000,  exclusive  of  the 
salaries  of  aides  de  camp,  doctors,  musicians,  etc., 
which  were  paid  by  the  minister  of  war. 

The  stables  of  the  Palace  contained  600  horses, 
whose  provender,  according  to  the  estimates  of  the 
most  reasonable  contractors,  cost  tliree  Turkish  liras 
per  month,  making  a  total  of  about  £20,000. 

More  than  200  carriages  of  every  description  were 


CH.  X.  Imperial  Expenditure.  '  249 

kept  in  the  palace.  These  were  for  the  most  part 
presents  from  the  Viceroy  of  Eg3'pt,  but  the  expenses 
of  the  150  coachmen  and  footmen  with  their  rich 
liveries  are  paid  by  a  civil  list,  also  the  harness- 
maker's  accounts,  and  other  items  of  this  department. 

The  annual  expenditure  for  pictures,  porcelain,  etc., 
-was  never  less  than  £140,000,  and  in  one  year  Sultan 
Abdul- Aziz  spent  £120,000  for  pictures  only.  As  for 
jewels,  the  purchases  attained  the  annual  sum  of 
£100,000,  and  the  expenses  of  the  harem  for  presents, 
dresses,  etc.,  absorbed  £100,000  per  annum. 

Besides  these  items,  the  allowances  to  the  mother 
and  sisters  of  the  Sultan,  to  his  nephews  and  nieces, 
and  to  the  heir  apparent,  amounted  to  £181,760. 
This  gives  a  total  of  at  least  £1,300,000  annually. 
To  this  must  be  added  £80,000  for  keeping  in  repair 
the  existing  Imperial  kiosks  and  palaces,  and  £580,000 
for  the  construction  of  new  ones.  The  Imperial 
revenue  in  the  civil  list  w^as  £1,280,000.  The  ex- 
penditm-e  was  really  over  £2,000,000. 

I  am  unable  to  give  an  estimate  of  the  expenses  of 
the  seraglio  of  the  present  Sultan,  but  I  have  been 
informed  on  good  authority  that  his  jNIajesty  personally 
superintends  the  management  of  the  palace,  and  regu- 
lates its  expenditure  with  great  wisdom  and  economy ; 
it  will  take  some  time  however  to  put  an  end  to  the 
disorder,  corruption,  and  irregularity  that  have  become 
so    rooted    in    the    whole     system,    and    caused    the 


250  The  People  of  T^irkey.  vw  w. 

extravagance  and  waste  that  prevailed  in  the  house- 
hohls  of  former  sultans.  A  Turkish  proverb  says, 
"Baluk  bashtau  kokar,"  "  The  fish  begins  to  decom- 
pose at  the  head :  "  accordingly,  if  the  head  be  sound 
there  is  every  hope  that  the  body  will  also  keep 
fresh. 

The  haremlili  of  the  Seraglio  contains  from  1000  to 
1500  women,  divided  among  the  Sultan's  household ; 
that  of  his  mother,  the  Yalide  Sultana ;  and  those  of 
the  princes. 

This  vast  host  of  women  of  all  ranks,  ages  and 
conditions  are,  without  exception,  of  slave  extraction, 
originating  from  the  cargoes  of  slaves  that  yearly  find 
their  way  to  Turkey  from  Cii'cassia,  Georgia,  Abys- 
sinia, and  Arabia,  in  spite  of  the  prohibition  of  the 
slave  trade.  These  slaves  are  sold  in  their  native 
land  by  unnatural  relations,  or  torn  from  their  homes 
by  hostile  tribes  to  be  subsequently  handed  over  to  the 
slave  dealers,  and  brought  by  them  into  the  capital 
and  other  large  towns.  AH  these  women  are  the  off- 
spring of  semi-barbarous  parents,  who  seldom  scruple 
to  sell  their  own  flesh  and  blood.  Born  in  the  hovel 
of  the  peasant,  or  the  hut  of  the  fierce  chieftain,  their 
first  condition  is  one  of  extreme  ignorance  and  bar- 
barism. Possessed  with  the  knowledge  of  no  written 
language,  with  a  confused  idea  of  religion  mixed 
up  with  the  superstitious  practices  that  ignorance 
engenders  ;  poorly-clad,  portionless,  and  unprotected. 


CH.  X.  Seraglio   Women.  251 

they  are  drawn  into  the  seraglio  by  chains  of  bondage, 
and  go  under  the  denommation  of  Adjcuiis  (rustics). 
No  matter  how  low  had  been  their  starting  point, 
their  future  career  depends  solely  upon  their  own  good 
fortune.  Their  training  in  the  seraglio  is  regulated  by 
the  vocations  for  which  they  are  destined ;  those 
chosen  to  fulfil  domestic  positions,  such  as  negresses 
and  others  not  highly  favoured  by  nature,  are  put 
under  the  direction  of  half  as,  or  head-servants,  and 
taught  their  respective  duties. 

The  framing  they  receive  depends  upon  the  career 
to  which  their  age,  personal  attractions,  and  colour, 
entitle  them.  The  young  and  beautiful,  whose  lot 
has  a  great  chance  of  being  connected  with  that  of  his 
Imperial  Majesty,  or  some  high  dignitary  to  whom 
she  may  be  presented  by  the  Valide  or  the  Sultan  as 
odalisk  or  wife,  receives  a  veneer  composed  of  the 
formalities  of  Turkish  etiquette,  elegance  of  deport- 
ment, the  art  of  beautifying  the  person,  dancing, 
singing,  or  playing  on  some  musical  instrument.  To 
the  young  and  willing,  instruction  in  the  rudiments  of 
the  Turkish  language  are  given;  they  are  also  initiated 
in  the  simpler  forms  of  Mohammedanism  taught  to 
women,  such  as  the  Namaz  and  other  prayers  and  the 
observance  of  the  fasts  and  feasts.  Most  of  them  are, 
however,  left  to  pick  uj)  the  language  as  best  they  can, 
and  for  this  they  displa}-  great  aptitude,  and  often 
succeed  in  speaking  Turkish  with  a  certain  amount  of 


252  The  People  of  Turkey.  vr.  n. 

-eloquence,  although  their  native  accent  is  never  lost, 
and  the  extraction  of  a  seraili  can  always  be  discovered 
h}'  her  particular  accent.  Many  of  these  women 
possess  great  natural  talent,  and  if  favoured  with  some 
education,  and  endowed  with  a  natural  elegance,  be- 
come ver}'  tolerable  specimens  of  the  fair  sex. 

All  the  seraglio  inmates,  on  their  entrance  to  the 
imperial  abode,  do  not  belong  to  this  class  of  Adjeinis ; 
many  of  them  have  been  previously  purchased  by 
Turkish  hanoums  of  high  station,  who  from  specula- 
tive or  other  motives,  give  them  the  training  described, 
and  when  sufficiently  polished  sell  them  at  high  prices, 
or  present  them  to  the  seraglio  with  the  view  to  some 
object. 

An  ex-seraili  of  my  acquaintance  had  herself 
undertaken  this  task  and  had  off'ered  as  many  as  four- 
teen young  girls  to  the  seraglio  of  Abdul- Aziz,  after 
having  reared  each  for  the  duties  that  would  probably 
devolve  upon  her.  This  lady  said  to  me,  "What  other 
gift  from  a  humble  creature  like  myself  could  be  accept- 
able to  so  great  a  personage  as  his  Imperial  Majesty?" 
At  the  time  this  conversation  took  place  she  had 
a  fresh  batch  of  young  slaves  in  hand.  They  were  all 
smart-looking  girls,  designated  by  fancy  names  such  as 
Amore,  Fidele,  Rossignole,  Beaute,  etc.  Their  dress 
was  rich,  but  ludicrous  in  the  extreme,  being  composed 
of  cast-off  seraglio  finery  of  all  the  colours  of  the  rain- 
bow ;  some  children  were  even  dressed  in  the  Turkish 


cii.  X.  Training  of  Scrailis.  253 

military  uniform,  which  contrasted  strangel}'  with  the 
plaits  of  their  long  thick  hair  tied  itp  with  cotton  rags. 
Their  politeness,  half  saucy,  half  obsequious,  was 
very  amusing ;  on  entering  the  room  they  all  stood 
in  a  row  at  the  lower  end,  and  when  some  jocose 
observations  were  made  to  them  by  their  mistress,  a 
ready  and  half  impudent  repl}'^  was  never  wanting. 
The  youngest,  about  eight  years  of  age,  was  dressed 
in  a  miniatm-e  colonel's  full  uniform  ;  on  being  ad- 
dressed by  her  owner  by  the  name  of  "  PicJi,"  *  and 
asked,  "  Will  you  have  this  lady's  little  son  for  3'our 
husband  ?  I  mean  to  marry  him  to  j'ou  when  you  grow 
up  !  "  the  little  miss  laughed,  and  seemed  perfectly 
well  acquainted  with  the  meaning  of  the  proposal,  and 
by  no  means  abashed  at  it. 

The  treatment  these  girls  received  seemed  to  be  very 
kind,  but  sadly  wanting  in  decency,  morality,  and  good 
principle. 

On  the  accession  of  a  new  Sultan  to  the  throne,  it 
was  customary  to  make  a  clearance  of  most  of  the 
inmates  of  the  seraglio,  and  replenish  it  with  fresh 
ones,  such  as  those  that  already  belonged  to  the 
household  of  the  new  sovereign,  and  others  further 
to  augment  the  number.  Ottoman  sultans,  Avith 
two  exceptions,  have  never  been  known  to  marry ; 
the  mates    of  the    Sultan,    chosen    from    among    the 

*  In  polite  language,  "  child  of  unknown  i)atermty." 


2  54  ^-^^  People  of  Turkey.  v\\  n. 

ranks  of  slaves  already  mentioned,  or  from  among 
those  that  are  presented  to  him,  can  only  he  ad- 
mitted to  the  honourahle  title  of  wife  when  they  have 
borne  children.  The  first  wife  is  called  Bash  Kadin 
Effendi,  the  second  Ikinji  Kadin  Efiendi,  and  so  on 
in  nmnerical  order  up  to  tlie  seventh  wife  (should 
there  he  so  many),  who  w^ould  be  called  Yedinji  Kadin 
Effendi.* 

The  slaves  that  have  borne  children  beyond  this 
number  bear  the  title  of  Hanoums,  and  rank  after  the 
Kadin  Effendis ;  their  childi-en  are  considered  legiti- 
mate, and  rank  with  the  other  princes  and  princesses. 
To  these  two  classes  must  be  added  a  third,  that  of 
favourites,  who  having  no  right  to  the  title  of  Kadin 
Effendi  or  Hanoum,  are  dependent  solely  upon  the 
caprice  of  their  master  or  the  influence  they  may  have 
acquired  over  him  for  the  position  they  hold  in  the 
imperial  household. 

Under  this  system  every  slave  in  the  seraglio,  from 
the  scullery  maid  to  the  fair  and  delicate  beauty 
purchased  for  her  personal  charms,  may  aspire  to 
attaining  the  rank  of  wife,  odalisk,  or  favourite.  The 
mother  of  the  late  Sultan  Abdul-Aziz  is  said  to  have 
performed  the  most  menial  offices  in  the  establishment. 

*  A  few  years  ago  the  mother  of  Sultan  Abdul- Aziz,  desirous  of 
farther  reducing  this  number,  brought  forward  an  old  palace  regula- 
tion, that  every  seraglio  woman  found  cnceltite  should  be  subjected 
to  the  operation  of  artificial  abortion,  Avith  the  exception  of  the  first 
four  wives. 


CH.  X.  Odalisks.  255 

When  thus  engaged  one  day  she  happened  to  attract 
the  attention  of  her  imperial  master,  Sultan  Mah- 
moud  II.,  who  distinguished  her  with  every  mark  of 
attention,  and  raised  her  to  the  rank  of  Bash  Kadin. 
Generally  speaking,  liowever,  the  wives  of  sultans  are 
select  beauties  who  are  offered  to  him  yearly  by  the 
nation  on  the  feast  of  Kandil  Ghedjessi,  others  are 
gifts  of  the  Valide  and  other  persons  wishing  to  make 
an  offering  to  the  Sultan. 

When  one  of  these  odalisks  has  succeeded  in  gaining 
the  good  graces  of  the  Sultan,  and  attracted  his  atten- 
tion, he  calls  up  the  Ikuiji  Hasnadar  Ousta,*  and 
notifies  to  her  his  desire  of  receiving  the  favoured 
beauty  into  his  ajiartment.  The  slave  being  informed 
of  this,  is  bathed,  dressed  with  great  care  and  elegance, 
and  introduced  in  the  evening  to  the  imperial  presence. 
Should  she  be  so  fortunate  as  to  find  favour  in  the 
ej^es  of  her  lord  and  master,  she  is  on  the  next  morn- 
ing admitted  into  a  separate  room  reserved  for  slaves 
of  this  category,  which  she  occupies  during  the  time 
needful  for  ascertaining  what  rank  she  is  in  future  to 
take  in  the  seraglio.  Should  the  arrival  of  a  child 
raise  her  to  that  of  Kadin  Effendi  or  hanoum,  a 
Daire  or  special  apartment  is  set  ajnirt  for  her. 
Those  who  are  admitted  to  the  Sultan's  presence,  and 
have  no  claims  to  the   rights  of  maternity,   do  not 

*  Under-superintendent  of  the  liarcm. 


256  The  People  of  Tiirkey.  rr.  n. 

present  themselves  a  second  time,  miless  requested 
to  do  so,  nor  can  they  hi}--  chiim  to  any  further 
attention,  although  their  persons,  like  those  of  the 
Kadin  Effendi  and  hanoums,  become  sacred,  and 
the  contraction  of  marriage  with  another  person 
is  unlawful.  The  distinction  between  the  favoured 
and  the  discarded  favourite  is  made  known  by  her 
abstainmg  fi"om  gomg  to  the  Jiaminam.  The  lot 
of  these  discarded  favourites  is  naturally  not  an 
enviable  one.  Accidentally  noticed  b}'  the  Sultan,  or 
entertained  by  him  as  the  object  of  a  mere  passing 
caprice,  they  seldom  have  the  good  fortune  to  occupy 
a  sufficient  ascendancy  over  the  mind  or  heart  of 
the  sovereign  to  enable  them  to  prolong  or  consolidate 
their  influence. 

A  seraglio  inmate,  who  had  herself  enjoyed  Imperial 
favour  of  this  description,  told  me  that  it  w^as  very 
seldom  that  a  slave  enjo5'ed  more  than  once  the  i^ass- 
ing  notice  of  the  Sultan,  a  disappointment  natm'ally 
very  deeply  felt  by  those  who  after  being  suddenly 
raised  to  the  height  of  favour  find  themselves  quicld}'- 
consigned  again  to  oblivion,  in  which  their  future  is 
passed.  There  are  many  among  the  rejected  favourites 
who  have  sensitive  natm'es  and  are  capable  of  a  serious 
attachment,  and  in  consequence  of  the  sarcasms  the 
more  favoured  fail  not  to  heaj)  upon  them,  the  disap- 
pointment they  have  experienced,  or  the  devouring 
jealousy  that  um'equited  love  occasions,  are   said  to 


en.  X.  Bessiind  Sidtana.  257 

become  broken-hearted  or  die  of  consumption.  **Nor," 
continued  my  informant,  "was  the  condition  of  those 
more  closely  connected  with  the  Sultan  such  as  insm'ed 
to  them  perfect  happiness,  mental  unconcern,  or 
securit}'." 

They  are  obliged  to  have  recom'se  to  every  art  to 
preserve  their  beauty,  fight  hard  against  the  attacks 
and  intrigues  of  rivals,  and  carefully  to  watch  over 
themselves  and  their  oiTspring. 

Bessime  Sultana,  one  of  the  few  who  obtained  a 
right  to  that  title  by  marriage,  was  an  emancipated 
slave  adopted  by  the  lady  who  had  brought  her  up, 
and  consequently  could  not  be  possessed  by  Sidtan 
Abdul-Medjid  unless  through  Nekyah  or  legal  mar- 
iiage. 

In  relating  her  strange  and  adventurous  life,  as  one 
of  the  Kadin  Effendis,  to  a  personal  friend  of  mine,  she 
said.  Nothing  can  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  intrigues 
and  cabals  perpetually  carried  on  within  the  walls  of 
the  seragHo.  The  power  and  happiness  of  some  contrast 
strangely  Avith  the  trials  and  sufferings  of  those  who 
are  in  the  power  of  the  influential  and  mahcious. 
Every  crime  that  has  a  chance  of  being  silently  i^assed 
over  can  be  committed  by  these. 

The  slave  who,  by  her  interesting  position,  becomes 
entitled  to  the  use  of  separate  ajiartments,  receives  a 
pension,  has  her  own  slaves,  her  eunuchs,  her  doctors, 
banker,  carriages,  and  caiques,  and  is  supplied  with 

VOL.   I.  s 


258  TJic  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  h. 

apparel,  jewels,  and  all  other  requisites  suited  to  lier 
rank.  She  dines  in  her  own  rooms,  receives  her 
friends,  and  goes  out  when  allowed  to  do  so.  On 
attaming  this  rank  a  new  world  dazzling  with  gold, 
luxury,  and  every  refinement  helonging  to  the  favoured 
and  elevated  is  opened  to  her,  raising  her  fiu'  above 
her  former  companions  in  toil  and  frolic,  who  in  future, 
setting  aside  all  familiarit}-,  stand  before  her  with 
folded  arms,  kiss  the  hem  of  her  garment,  and  obey 
her  orders  with  profound  respect. 

The  favoured  beauty  fulfils  the  duties  of  her  new 
position,  with  the  elegance,  dignity,  and  savoir  faire  of 
an  enchanted  being,  who  accustomed  to  the  distant 
perspective  of  the  fairy-land  which  has  been  the  one 
object  of  her  dreams,  suddenly  attains  it,  and  feels  at 
home.  Her  single  aim  in  life  is  now  to  preserve 
those  charms  which  have  caused  her  elevation. 

In  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid's  time,  blue-eyed,  dehcate 
beauties  with  golden  hair  were  the  most  admired  by 
the  Sultan ;  fair  beauties  consequently  became  ex- 
tremely rcclicrcJtees,  and  the  grand  ladies  of  the  capital 
vied  with  each  other  in  their  assiduity  in  finding  out 
and  educating  them,  in  order  to  present  them  to  the 
seraglio.  By  degrees  the  taste  for  Laypisca,  or  golden- 
locks,  became  so  general  in  Turkish  society  as  to  make 
the  fortune  of  many  a  Pera  perruquier,  who  sold  for 
a  guinea  the  tiny  bottle  of  fluid  that  changed  the  dusky 
hair  into  golden    tresses,  whilst  the  ladies  paid  the 


cii.  X.  The   Validd  S^iltana,  259 

penalty  of  its  abuse  in  the  injiny  done  to  tlieir  eyes 
and  the  nervous  maLadies  contracted  by  its  use. 
Besides  this,  all  the  seraglio  ladies  indulge  to  a  great 
extent  in  paint,  rouge,  and  rastuk  (antimony)  for  the 
eyes  and  e^'ebrows. 

A  French  proverb  says,  "  La  femme  est  un  animal 
qui  s'habille,  babille  et  se  barbouille."  If  this  can  be 
appHed  to  any  particular  class  of  womankind,  it  is 
surely  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  fairy-land  I  have 
attempted  to  describe. 

The  Valide  Sultana,  or  mother  of  the  Sultan,  ranks 
first  in  the  seraglio  ;  one  of  the  wings  of  the  palace 
nearest  to  that  occupied  by  her  son  is  set  apart  for 
her  use.  She  possesses  state  apartments,  has  an  in- 
numerable train  of  slaves,  and  every  mark  of  attention 
is  paid  her  not  only  by  the  Sultan,  but  also  by  all 
the  high  functionaries  of  the  Porte,  who  at  times  have 
more  to  dread  from  her  influence  and  mterference 
than  from  the  Sultan  himself.  The  other  members  of 
the  Imperial  family  rank  next  by  courtesy,  but  these 
are  all  under  the  direct  control  of  the  Hasnadar  Oustn, 
or  superintendent,  who,  with  her  assistant,  the  second 
Hasnadar  Ousta,  attends  to  all  the  wants  of  each  de- 
imrtment,  regulates  tlieir  internal  administration,  and 
acts  as  go-between  of  the  Sultan  and  his  wives  when 
they  have  any  request  to  make  to  him  or  when  he  has 
orders  to  give  respecting  them  ;  she  also  regulates  the 
receptions  and  ceremonies  as  well  as  the  expenses. 

s  2 


26o  The  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  n. 

Some  of  her  duties  are  of  the  most  delicate,  difficult, 
and  responsible  nature,  and  require  a  great  amount  of 
judgment  and  experience.  The  person  appointed  to 
this  important  post  is  generally  the  favourite  slave  of 
the  Valide. 

Very  few  of  the  seraglio  inmates,  except  j'oung 
princesses  and  other  children  that  are  brought  uji 
from  their  infancy  in  it,  possess  any  knowledge  of 
writing,  or  have  had  the  advantage  of  regular  training. 
All  started  in  life  from  the  same  condition  :  chance 
alone  settles  the  difference  between  the  Avife,  odalisk, 
favourite,  and  Imperial  mother,  and  draws  a  line 
between  them  and  their  luckless  sisters  left  to  the 
exercise  of  menial  functions. 

Education,  much  neglected  as  yet  among  Turkish 
women,  has  made  very  little  progress  in  the  seraglio, 
where  it  would  prove  an  invaluable  aid  to  those  des- 
tined to  hold  the  responsible  positions  of  wives  and 
mothers  of  Sultans.  If  the  foraier,  instead  of  being 
chosen  as  they  are  from  a  host  of  human  beings 
chained  to  the  service  of  a  single  individual  with  the 
sole  object  of  amusing  his  leisure  hom's,  attending  to 
his  "wants,  and  giving  him  the  progeny  that  is  to  succeed 
him  on  the  throne,  were  selected,  as  in  other  countries, 
from  among  educated  ladies,  and  their  number  fixed 
(or  reduced  to  one)  by  the  laws  of  religion  and  civiliza- 
tion, how  different  would  seragho  life  be !  Dignity 
and  esteem  would  replace  humiliation ;  woman  elevated 


cir.  X.  The   Tju'kisk  Hanojim.  261 

to  her  true  sphere  would  exercise  her  influence  for 
liigh  and  noble  objects,  instead  of  the  unworthy  pur- 
poses which  she  effects  through  the  only  channel  left 
open  to  her. 

Under  such  a  system  it  will  not  be  surprising  to  hear 
of  vice  and  corruption  prevailing  in  a  centre  where 
virtue  is  crushed,  and  the  benefits  of  sound  education 
are  neither  acquired  nor  appreciated.  The  correctness 
of  this  statement,  which  may  appeax*  severe,  can  only 
be  understood  and  appreciated  by  those  who'have  come 
in  contact  with  inmates  of  the  seraglio,  and  are  well 
acquainted  with  the  language,  manners,  and  customs 
of  the  Tm'ks.  Such  persons  would  have  no  hesitation 
in  admitting  that  exceptions  are  to  be  found  in  the 
seraglio,  as  well  as  in  the  rest  of  Tm'kish  societ}'. 
The  class  which  is  in  the  minorit}'-  consists  of  those 
naturally  gifted  natures,  to  be  met  with  in  this  country 
as  elsewhere,  who  possess  virtues  that  yield  not  to  the 
influences  of  temptation  and  vice,  and  become  ladies 
in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  The  real  Turldsh 
Hanoum,  or  lad}-,  is  a  dignified,  quiet  person,  elegant, 
sensible,  and  often  naturally  eloquent,  condescending 
and  kind  to  those  who  gain  her  goodwill,  proud  and 
reserved  to  those  who  do  not  merit  her  esteem.  Her 
conversational  resources  are  certainly  limited,  but  the 
sweetness  and  poetry  of  the  language  she  uses,  the 
pretty  manner  in  which  her  expressions  are  worded, 
and   the    spirited   repartee   that   she    can   command, 


262  The  People  of  Ttu'key.  pt.  n. 

have  a  charm  that  atones  for  her  limited  knowledge. 
Her  manners,  jirinciples,  and  choice  of  language 
oifer  a  pleasant  contrast  to  those  i)revalent  among 
the  generality,  and  render  her  society  extremely 
agreeable. 

There  is  another  class  of  serailis  who  present  a  not 
less  interesting  study.  Sensitive  and  refined,  fragile 
and  dreamy  in  ajipearance,  gifted,  perhaps,  ^Yith  virtues 
they  have  no  occasion  to  exercise,  or  with  strong  and 
jiassionate  feelings  that  in  a  seraglio  can  never  find 
vent  in  a  solid  and  healthy  affection,  they  become 
languid  and  spiritless,  verging  towards  decline,  to  which 
the}'  fall  victmis,  unless  released  (as  occasionally 
happens)  by  being  set  free  and  married. 

Another  class  of  serailis  is  the  indeiDendent  set, 
who  are  denominated  Deli  Serailis,  or  wild  serailis, 
famous  for  their  extravagant  ideas,  disorderly  conduct, 
and  uninly  disposition ;  endowed  with  the  bump  of 
cunning  and  mischief,  joined  to  a  fair  amount  of 
energy  and  vivacit}',  they  carry  out,  in  spite  of  high 
walls  and  the  watchful  surveillance  of  more  than  a 
hundred  eunuchs,  all  the  wicked  plans  and  mad  freaks 
their  disorderly  minds  and  impulsive  natures  suggest 
to  them;  their  language,  manners,  and  actions,  are  such 
as  no  pen  can  describe.  In  the  reign  of  Sultan  Abdul- 
Medjid,  the  misconduct  and  extravagance  of  this  set 
had  reached  its  climax,  and  attracted  the  attention 
even  of  tliat  indulgent  sovereign,  who  Avas  induced  to 


cii.  X.  Dell  Scrailis.  263 


order  the  expulsion  of  the  most  notorious.  A  few  of 
them  were  exiled,  others  given  in  marriage,  by  Imperial 
order,  to  some  dependant  of  the  palace,  who  received 
an  official  appointment  or  was  sent  into  the  interior. 
These  unfortunate  men,  burdened  with  their  uncon- 
genial helpmates,  were  but  inadequate!}'  compensated 
by  the  rich  gifts  they  received  at  the  same  time. 
During  a  long  residence  in  the  interior  of  Turkey,  I 
became  personally  acquainted  with  u  number  of  these 
ladies.  One  of  tliem,  a  stout,  coarse-looking  woman, 
would  not  even  deign  to  show  that  outward  appearance 
of  respect  required  from  every  Turkish  woman  towards 
her  husband.  She  was  the  wife  of  a  sub-governor,  in 
whose  house  I  passed  a  day  and  night ;  she  was  ga}', 
and  of  a  sociable  disposition,  but  evidently  not  much 
attached  to  her  husband,  whom  she  designated  as 
Bezim  Kamhour  (my  hen-pecked  one),  and  to  whom 
she  addressed  invectives  of  a  very  violent  nature, 
accompanied,  as  I  was  subsequently  informed,  by 
corporal  chastisement. 

A  second  seraili,  worthy  of  mention,  was  a  thin 
Circassian  brunette,  married  to  a  governor-general  of 
high  rank.  She  had  a  propensity,  rather  imusual 
amongst  Turkish  women,  to  an  abuse  of  strong  drinlcs, 
and  she  and  her  boon  companions  indulged  in  this 
excess  to  such  a  degree  as  to  shock  and  scandalise  the 
Mohammedan  portion  of  the  mhabitants  wherever  she 
went. 


264  TJic  People  of  Tiirkey.  it.  h. 

The  other  serailis  of  this  class  were  so  strange  and 
extravagant  m  their  manners,  and  their  actions  had 
made  them  so  notorious,  that  details  of  their  freaks 
would  be  as  unedifying  to  the  public  as  pamful  to  me 
to  describe. 

Generally  speaking,  I  frequented  this  class  of 
serailis  as  little  as  the  convenances  of  society  i^er- 
mitted,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  experienced  great 
pleasure  in  associatmg  with  the  serailis  that  belonged 
to  the  respectable  class,  in  whose  society,  conversing 
upon  seraglio  life,  I  have  spent  many  a  pleasant 
hour. 

The  amusements  in  the  Imperial  palace  depend 
very  much  upon  the  tastes  and  disposition  of  the 
reigning  sovereign,  whose  pleasure,  in  such  matters,  is 
naturally  first  consulted.  In  the  days  of  Sultan  Abdul- 
Medjid  these  amusements  daily  received  some  increase 
in  the  shape  of  Euroj^ean  innovations.  A  theatre  of 
great  beaut}-  was  built  in  one  of  the  palaces,  by  order 
of  the  Sultan,  and  a  European  company  of  actors 
played  pieces,  which  the  ladies  were  allowed  to  witness 
from  behind  lattices.  Ballet- dancing,  for  which  the 
Sultan  evinced  great  partiality ;  conjurors  of  Euro- 
pean celebrity ;  the  Turkish  Kara  Guez  or  Marionettes; 
al  fresco  entertainments,  etc.,  were  among  the  enter- 
tainments. Shopping  in  the  streets  of  Pera  was 
not  the  least  appreciated  of  their  amusements.  The 
French   shop-keeper  himself  played  as  prominent  a 


en.  X.  Garden- Parties.  265 

part  in  the  matter  as  the  perfumes  and  finery  he 
disphvyed  and  sokl.  There  were  also  deHghtful 
garden-parties,  when  the  seraglio  gromids  would  he 
lighted  up  with  variegated  lanterns  and  fireworks,  and 
all  that  the  Palace  contained  of  youth  and  heauty  turned 
out;  some,  dressed  as  young  pages,  Avould  act  the 
part  of  Lovelace,  and  make  love  to  their  equally  fair 
companions,  dressed  in  light  fancy  costumes ;  others, 
grouped  together,  would  perform  ol  musical  instru- 
ments, or  execute  different  dances;  others,  again, 
seated  in  light  caiques,  with  costumes  so  transparent 
and  aiiy  as  to  show  every  muscle  of  the  hodies,  and 
with  flowing  hair  to  preserve  then*  white  necks  from 
tlie  evening  dew,  would  race  on  the  still  waters  of  the 
lakes. 

The  Sultanas  and  hanoums,  seated  on  carpets,  be- 
guiling the  time  by  drinking  sherbets,  eating  fruits 
and  ices,  and  smoking  cigarettes,  would  gaze  on  the 
scene,  while  strains  of  music  and  the  notes  of  the 
Shaiki  (songs)  would  be  heard  in  all  directions.  All, 
however,  both  slaves  and  ladies,  were  similarly  occu- 
pied with  one  sole  object — that  of  rendering  the  scene 
pleasant  and  beauteous  to  the  lord  and  master  for 
whom  it  was  designed.  All  would  redouble  their 
life  and  animation  as  the  Sultan  listlessly  approached 
each  group,  acknowledging  its  presence  with  a  sweet 
smile,  a  gentle  word,  or  a  passing  caress,  which  he 
never  withheld  even  when  all  the  faculties  of  enjo}mient 


2  66  The  People  of  Turkey .  vi.  n. 

Avere  destroyed,  and  his  earthly  paradise  of  houris  had 
become  an  object  of  indifference. 

During  the  reign  of  his  successor  the  tone  of  llie 
seraglio  became  more  serious  and  the  life  of  its 
inmates  more  constrained ;  there  "was  less  Eurojiean 
amusement  and  more  Turkish ;  such  as  a  Turkish 
theatre,  ■whose  actors  and  actresses,  Turkish  and 
Armenian,  perfonned  Turldsh  pieces,  with  a  certain 
amount  of  success,  such  as  the  Mcydan  Oyoun,  a 
coarse  kind  of  comedy,  and  other  representations  of  a 
similar  character. 

A  child  born  in  the  seraglio  is  allowed  to  remain 
under  the  care  of  its  mother,  who,  with  the  assistance 
of  a  wet-nurse  and  several  under-nurses,  has  charge  of 
its  infantile  wants  up  to  the  age  of  seven.  The  wet- 
nurse  is  generally  sent  for  from  Circassia.  On  enter- 
ing upon  her  duties  as  foster-mother  she  is  entitled  to 
special  attention,  and  exercises  great  influence  over 
her  charge.  Her  own  child  is  received  as  Sut  Kar- 
dasli,  or  foster-brother,  of  the  Imperial  offspring,  and 
enjoys  the  privilege  of  becoming  his  pla3'mate  and  com- 
panion. The  two  children,  as  they  grow  uj)  together, 
never  lose  sight  of  one  another,  the  fortune  of  the  one 
being  assured  in  right  of  the  privilege  of  having  drawn 
its  nourishment  from  the  same  source  as  the  other. 

I  obtained  these  details  from  a  Pasha  of  high  rank, 
who  had  himself  the  honour  of  being  foster-brother 
to  one  of  the  Sultans:  he  said, — "Before  I  saw  the 


cir.  X.  Foster-children.  267 

light,  my  mother  was  sent  for  from  Circassia,  and  my 
Lirth,  which  took  phice  in  the  seraglio,  preceded  that 
of  his  Imperial  Majesty  hy  a  few  weeks.  As  I  grew 
up,  the  pros2)erity  of  my  family,  due  to  Imperial 
Lount}',  was  not  limited  to  my  mother  and  myself,  but 
extended  to  my  father  and  the  rest  of  my  relatives, 
wlio  were  brought  to  Constantinople,  and  enriched 
with  grants  of  wealth,  rank,  and  position."  The  re- 
sults, however,  of  these  ties  are  not  ivlways  so  favour- 
able to  the  Imperial  prince  as  to  those  who  owe  their 
all  to  his  generosity.  These  persons,  being  of  humble 
origin,  on  finding  themselves  suddenly  raised  to  a 
higher  sphere,  do  not  possess  the  necessary  qualifica- 
tion for  making  a  good  and  judicious  use  of  the  influ- 
ence they  thus  acquire.  The  foster-mother  of  Sultan 
Abdul-Aziz  was  notorious  for  her  rapacity  and  spirit 
of  intrigue  ;  she  had,  by  degrees,  acquired  such  as- 
cendancy in  the  seraglio  as  to  have  it  in  her  power 
to  appoint  or  dismiss,  at  her  will,  governors-general 
and  other  important  personages.  One  of  her  special 
proteges,  on  being  informed  that  he  was  about  to  be 
transferred  from  his  post  as  Governor- General  of  a 

vilayet  of  E, ,  smiled  calmly,  and  said  to  me,  "  So 

long  as  the  Sultan's  foster-mother  is  there  to  protect 
my  interests,  I  am  in  no  danger  of  that !  The  attempt 
made  to  remove  me  will  cost  a  little  money,  that  is 
all !  " 

The  training  of  the  Imperial  child  is  not  free  from 


268  TJic  People  of  Turkey.  w.  u. 

the  many  drawbacks  that  attend  other  Turkish  chil- 
dren. From  its  earliest  infoncy,  left  in  the  hands  of 
fond  hut  weak  and  uneducated  women,  the  child 
becomes  wayAvard,  capricious,  and  difficult  to  please. 

This  lenient  treatment  of  the  infant  is  continued  in 
the  more  advanced  stages  of  its  life,  and  seriously 
retards  its  education.  At  this  period  Imperial  princes 
and  princesses  command  absolute  attention,  obedience, 
and  respect  from  the  legion  of  menials  that  surround 
them,  who,  anxious  to  lay  the  foundations  of  future 
favouritism,  refuse  nothing  in  their  power,  and  pamper 
their  vanity  and  precocious  ideas  to  such  an  extent,  as 
to  destroy  in  great  part  the  effects  of  the  teaching  they 
receive,  often  rendering  profitless  the  instruction  given 
them  in  morality  and  good  principle. 

The  knowledge  generally  acquired  by  Turkish 
princes  was  formerly  limited  to  the  study  of  Arabic, 
and  the  Persian,  Turkish,  and  French  languages,  with 
other  branches  of  the  general  Turkish  education,  but 
the  harem  indolence,  and  the  maternal  and  paternal 
indulgence,  sadly  interrupt  the  course  of  their  lessons, 
which  are  gone  through  in  a  most  negligent  manner, 
and  fail  to  have  their  due  effect  upon  the  young  mind 
that  pursues  them  with  little  assiduit}'. 

The  education  of  the  young  princesses  is  still  more 
deficient,  both  in  the  substance  of  the  teachmg,  and 
in  the  manner  and  time  in  which  it  is  undertaken.  An 
elementary   knowledge    of  their  native   language,    of 


CH.  X.  Princesses.  269 

music,  and  needlework,  given  at  leisure  and  received 
at  pleasure,  is  considered  quite  sufficient.  These  girls, 
on  attaining  the  age  of  fifteen  or  sixteen,  are  richly 
portioned,  receive  the  gift  of  a  splendid  trousseau, 
jewellery,  and  a  palace,  and  are  married  to  some  court 
favourite.  In  consequence  of  their  high  birth,  and  the 
precedence  they  have  over  their  husbands,  these  prm- 
cesses  are  very  independent,  and  absolute  mistresses 
in  their  households. 

Few  of  the  man-ied  princesses  in  the  reigns  of  the 
more  recent  Sultans  enjoyed  good  reputations  or 
acquired  public  esteem  or  even  the  affection  of  their 
husbands.  Wayward  and  extravagant  in  their  habits, 
tyrannical,  and  often  cruel,  their  treatment  of  their 
little-to-be-envied  spouses  furnished  cause  for  endless 
gossip  to  the  society  of  Stamboul.  The  few  princesses 
who  formed  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  still  remem- 
bered with  affection  by  the  numerous  dependants  of 
their  establishments. 


CHAPTER    XI. 

MUNICIPALITY,    POLICE,    AND    BRICxANDAGE. 

Munidpality. — Improvement  at  Constantinople — No  improvement  in 
Country  Towns— Sanitary  Negligence. — Police. — The  Corriiptinu 
of  the  old  I'olice — Formation  of  the  new  Corps — Its  various 
Classes — Economical  Eeductions — The  Corruption  of  the  new 
Police — Voluntary  Guards  the  connecting  link  betv.-eeu  Police 
and  Brigandage. — Brigandcujc. — Ancient  and  Modern  Brigands 
— Great  Diminution  of  Numljers — Constant  Outrages  however — 
Albanians  the  born  Brigands — Systematic  Attacks — Uselessness 
of  the  Police — My  Brigand  Guides — Usual  Manner  of  Attack — 
Danger  to  KJicradjis — Brigands  at  Vodena  repulsed  by  a  Chor- 
badji  and  his  Wife — Impotence  of  the  Authorities — Outrage  at 
Caterina — Modern  Greek  Klcphts. 

The  sanitary  and  protective  laws  of  Turke}'  are  in 
tlieir  application  still  ver}^  primitive,  although  of  late 
years  they  have  been  revised  and  reorganized,  and  a 
municipality  and  district  police  corps  have  been  formed. 
The  carrying  out  of  these  new  laws  was  entrusted 
to  a  regular  administration,  having  its  chief  seat  at 
Constantinople,  with  branches  in  all  the  provincial 
towns,  and  it  has  done  good  service  in  the  capital 
itself,  for  many  of  the  improvements  that  have 
been  made  tliere  are  due  to  the  efforts  of  the  munici- 
pality. 

In  other  to"RTis,  however,  its  good  influence,  though 


cii.  XI.  Neglect  of  the  Streets.  271 

Avell  paid  for    b}'  the  inhabitants,  has  hitherto  been 
little    felt.       The    streets   continue   to   be   ill-paved 
and  but  dimly  lighted  with  petroleum ;  sanitary  mea- 
sures are  neglected  ;    immense   heaps  of  refuse  are 
l)iled  up  on  pieces  of  waste  ground   and  stray  spots, 
and  are  left  to  decompose  by  the  action  of  the  air,  be 
devoured  by  unclean  animals,  or  float  away  on  some 
small  stream  of    water.      Enough,  however,  remains 
in  the  streets  and  in  the  vicinity  of  towns  and  villages 
to    pollute    the    air    and     cause    intermittent   fever. 
Fortunately  the  climate  is  naturall}^  salubrious,  and 
the  public  health,  taken  on  an  average,  is  good.  Some 
districts  are  considered  very  unhealthy,  but  the  fault 
lies  with  the  municipalit}^   of   the    place,    who,  when 
they  become  more  intelligent  and  active,  may  perhaps 
attend  less  to  their  own  interests  and  more  to  those  of 
the  public.     Besides  the  above-mentioned  innovations 
of  the  Beledic  or  municipality,  small  portions  of  pave- 
ment two  or  three  feet  in  length  are  now  and  then 
constructed,  professing  to  be  the  commencement  of  a 
magnificent  pavement  that  is  to  traverse  the  town  ; 
but  alas  !  after  a  few  weeks  the  work  is  abandoned, 
and  these  short  lengths  of  footpath  are  left  isolated  in 
the  midst  of  pools  of  mud  and  water,  which  can  onl}' 
be  crossed  by  using  the  boulders  scattered  here  and 
there  as  stepping  stones. 

Sometimes  a  number  of   scavengers  may  be  seen 
doing  duty  in  the  streets,  or  carting  away  the  rubbish 


272  The  People  of  T2trkcy.  rx.  n. 

collected  in  the  town,  but  they  only  convey  it  to  the 
quay,  where  it  is  left  for  the  ragged  Jews  and  other 
beggars  to  explore. 

The  defects  of  the  jiolice  were  far  more  serious  and 
more  deeply  felt  throughout  Turkey  than  those  of  the 
municipality.  The  police  were  insufficient  as  a  pro- 
tective force.  They  w^ere  badly  organized,  and  they 
showed  "an  utter  want  of  principle,  honesty,  and 
morality.  The  deplorable  condition  of  this  corps,  and 
the  oppressive  and  illegal  influence  it  exerted  over  the 
people,  gave  rise  to  great  public  indignation,  and  in- 
duced the  people  to  complain  loudly  against  it. 

Ali  and  Fuad  Pashas,  well  aware  of  the  grievance, 
were  the  first  to  attempt  a  thorough  police  reform. 
By  their  united  effoi'ts  a  regular  corps  w^as  formed, 
more  numerous,  better  conditioned,  better  paid,  clad 
in  uniform,  and  classified  as  follows  : — 

(1.)  The  Kavasses,  doing  duty  in  the  capital  and 
attached  to  embassies  and  other  foreign  offices. 

(2.)  The  Scijmcn,  doing  police  duty  at  Constan- 
tinople. 

(3.)  The  Zaptiehs,  foot  police  for  the  service  of  the 
district  administration. 

(4.)  The  Souharis,  mounted  police,  charged  with 
the  superintendence  of  public  safet}- ;  with  the  office 
of  receiving  the  taxes  from  the  villages  and  trans- 
mitting them  to  the  authorities ;  and  with  the  duty  of 
accompanying  overland  mails,  travellers,  etc. 


CH.  XI.  The  Nezu  Police.  273 

(5.)  Tlie  Bekchis,  or  rural  police,  placed  at  the 
Beklemes  or  guard-houses  on  all  the  main  roads. 

(6.)  The  Teftish,  or  detectives. 

The  uniform  worn  by  the  Kavasses  consists  of  a 
black  cloth  coat  and  trousers,  braided  with  gold,  a 
belt,  and  a  formidable-looking  Turkish  sword  and  pistol. 
That  of  the  detectives  is  similar,  but  they  carry  no 
arms.  The  rest  of  the  police  wear  a  uniform  similar 
to  that  of  the  Zouaves,  of  dark  blue  sliayak,  braided 
and  turned  up  with  red,  a  black  leather  belt  and  a 
cutlass.  The  Soubaris  have  long  guns,  and  all  wear 
the  fez.  The  officers'  uniform  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
officers  in  the  army.  The  arms  are  supplied  by  the 
Government,  and  a  new  suit  of  clothes  allowed  every 
year. 

When  this  body  was  first  organised,  some  attention 
was  paid  to  enrolling  in  it  men  of  respectable  char- 
acter. The  increase  of  pay  and  the  regularity  of  the 
pay-days  gave  it  for  some  time  a  better  name  than 
the  old  force  ;  but  unfortunately,  hardly  had  the  people 
begun  to  feel  the  benefit  of  the  changes  created  during 
the  reform  fever,  than  these  were  set  aside  to  make  room 
for  the  economical  mania  that  took  possession  of  the 
administration  on  the  formation  of  a  new  ministry. 
This  latest  epidemic,  of  the  many  that  have  attacked 
Turkey,  was  fatal  to  the  provincial  administration 
in  general,  and  affected  the  police  in  particular. 
Their    numbers   were   reduced,    and   pay   diminished 

VOL.   I.  T 


2  74  The  People  of  Turkey.  rr.  n. 

and  irregularl.y  distributed.  The  guard-houses  on  the 
highways,  which  had  been  established  at  the  distance 
of  four  niiles  from  each  other,  and  entrusted  to 
Bekcliis  who  were  hekl  responsible  for  the  security  of 
their  districts,  were  abandoned  and  fell  into  ruin,  or 
Avere  occupied  by  worthless  fellows  who  undertook 
the  duty  for  a  small  recompense,  which  proving  diffi- 
cult to  obtain,  these  so-called  "guards"  were  com- 
l)elled  to  make  uji  their  financial  deficits  as  best  they 
could. 

I  heard  of  a  fellow  of  this  kind  Avho  had  taken  the 
l>ost  of  Bekchi  in  a  mountain  pass,  as  a  chiplak 
or  tattered  Albanian,  but  who,  after  a  year  had 
passed,  was  the  owner  of  700  goats  and  a  fine  house, 
and  was  dressed  in  all  the  glory  of  his  national 
costume. 

How  did  he  obtain  it?  is  a  question  not  easily 
answered,  if  put  to  a  great  many  of  his  class.  I  do 
not,  myself,  find  the  problem  difficult  of  solution. 
These  amateur  guards  would  seem  to  be  the  connect- 
ing link  between  the  police  and  the  brigands ;  if,  in- 
deed, any  such  link  were  needed. 

Conversing,  some  time  ago,  with  some  highly  edu- 
cated Bulgarians  well  versed  in  the  aftairs  of  their 
country,  I  was  told  that  the  chief  causes  of  the  dis- 
content of  their  nation  were  the  increase  of  the  taxes, 
the  harshness  with  which  the  payment  was  enforced 
upon  them  by  the  district  officials,  the  extortion  of  the 


en.  xu  Briga ndagc.  275 

police,  and  the  robberies  and  crimes  committed  by 
the  Circassians.  The  people  complained  most  bitterly 
of  the  insolent  arrogance  of  tlie  police,  which  they 
declared  drove  them  to  desperation,  and  made  them 
ready  to  listen  to  any  one  who  promised  release,  rather 
than  continue  to  submit  longer  to  such  evils.  There  are, 
of  course,  some  honest  men  in  the  police  force  who  are 
ready  to  do  their  duty,  but  the  generality  are  vmques- 
tionably  immoral  and  unscrupulous,  and,  even  if  they 
Avere  honest,  their  number  is  too  small  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  millions  who  depend  upon  them  for  their 
safety. 

From  time  immemorial,  brigandage  has  played  so 
prominent  a  part  in  both  the  political  and  social  con- 
dition of  Turkey,  that  a  description  of  life  in  this 
country  would  be  incomplete  without  a  few  words  about 
this  lucrative  profession. 

I  shall  pass  over  the  time,  which  may  still  be  remem- 
bered by  some  of  tlie  oldest  inhabitants,  when  bri- 
gands, mustering  in  overwhelming  forces,  composed  of 
degenerate  janissaries  and  malcontents  from  all  the 
provinces  of  European  Turkey,  gathered  under  chief- 
tains like  Passvan  Oglou  and  Ali  Pasha  of  Joannina, 
defied  the  authority  of  the  Porte,  ravaged  and  devas- 
tated whole  provinces,  besieged  towns,  spread  terror 
and  bloodshed  on  every  side,  and  left  behind  them 
nothing  but  misery  and  tears.  I'he  Greek  Klephts 
were    not    more    renowned    for    their     bravery    and 

T   2 


276  TJic  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  h, 

patriotism  than  for  the  ravages  and  crimes  the}" 
committed  diirincc  and  after  the  war  of  Greek  inder 
pendence. 

Since  that  time  great  changes  have  taken  phice 
in  Turkey,  and  hrigandage  lost  its  ancient  power. 
The  thousands  that  filled  its  ranks  have,  in  our 
day,  been  reduced  to  tens.  But  the  evil,  though 
deprived  of  its  force,  and  even  entirely  eradicated 
in  some  parts  of  the  countr}-,  has  not  been  wholly 
suppressed. 

Of  late  years  in  Turkey,  brigandage  has  ceased  to 
clothe  itself  in  the  garb  of  politics  ;  it  is  now  repre- 
sented merely  by  bands  of  cut-throats  belonging  to  all 
creeds  and  nationalities.  The  chiefs,  however,  and 
the  backbone  of  these  bands,  are  Albanians.  The 
number  is  made  up  by  Greeks,  Turks,  and  Bulgarians. 
The  IMussulman  Albanian  takes  to  brigandage  because 
he  likes  it  and  willingl}'  makes  a  profession  of  it :  the 
others  join  in  order  to  evade  justice,  or  to  avoid 
want  and  miser}",  or  simply  to  respond  to  the  dictates 
of  a  vicious  and  criminal  disposition.  It  is  gene- 
rally in  early  spring,  when  the  trees  have  lost  their 
nakedness  and  the  hedges  are  covered  with  green 
leaves  and  sweet-smelling  blossoms,  that  this  ele- 
ment of  infamy  and  destruction  makes  its  appear- 
ance, taking  to  the  highway  or  lurking  for  its  prey 
among  the  hills  and  valleys,  and  polluting  with  its 
blood-stained  feet  the  freshness  and  purity  of  resur- 


CH.  XI.  Confeda'atcs  and  Supplies.  277 

gent  nature.  Its  victims  may  often  be  fomid  13'ing 
dead  on  a  bed  of  violets  or  lilies,  gazed  upon  by  the 
wild  rose  that  hangs  its  head  and  seems  to  blush  for 
man's  outrage.  Such  sights  are  of  everyday  occur- 
rence. 

The  brigands  have  associates  living  in  the  towns 
with  every  appearance  of  respectability,  who  furnish 
them  with  timely  notice  when  and  where  a  good  piece 
of  business  can  be  done.  They  have  spies  who  give 
them  warning  when  danger  is  at  hand,  and  they  often 
find  protectors  in  high  places  to  help  them  to  escape 
the  arm  of  the  law.  As  for  food,  the  flocks  of  the 
terror-stricken  Christian  shepherds  are  at  their  mercy, 
and  the  peasant,  trembhng  for  the  safety  of  his  home, 
dares  not  refuse  to  satisfy  them  with  bread  and  wine. 
He  dares  not  give  notice  to  the  authorities  of  the  pre- 
sence of  these  marauders,  as  that  would  expose  liim 
to  their  vengeance,  and  he  would  pay  for  his  temerity 
with  his  life.  But  should  the  authorities  suspect  a 
countryman  of  having  furnished  provision  or  other 
necessaries  to  the  brigands,  he  is  forthwith  prosecuted 
and  cast  into  prison  as  their  associate  and  a  partici- 
pator in  their  spoils.  These  are  the  causes  that  breed 
and  rear  brigandage  in  Turkey  in  defiance  of  laws  and 
of  the  power  of  the  authorities.  The  pohce  regula- 
tions, theoretically  excellent,  are  practically  useless, 
and  may  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  principal 
reasons  of  the   continuance  of  brigandage,  a  scourge 


278  The  People  of  Tiirkcy.  n.  n. 


on  the  inliabitants  and  a  disgrace  to  the  adndnistra- 
tion. 

When  a  hand  of  brigands  has  taken  up  its  quarters 
in  a  district,  the  country  round  is  continually  kept  on 
the  qui  vive  by  its  repeated  crimes  and  depredations. 
A  force  of  Soubaris  (mounted  police)  is  sent  in  chase, 
but  the  laxity  Avith  which  their  duty  is  generally  dis- 
charged, the  neglect  of  proper  precautions  to  ensure 
success,  and  the  usual  futile  termination  of  such  expe- 
ditions, are  often  caused  by  umvillingness  to  risk  a 
dangerous  encounter,  or  by  interested  motives  for  let- 
ting off  the  brigands. 

The  inhabitants,  on  the  other  hand,  suffer  in  any 
case  by  the  pursuit,  for,  when  it  proves  fruitless,  it 
does  not  save  them  from  danger,  and  only  aggravates 
the  enemy ;  and  when  the  chase  is  successful,  the 
expenses  of  having  these  armed  men  and  their  horses 
quartered  upon  them,  besides  the  suspicions  and  inju- 
ries to  which  they  are  often  exposed  under  the  pre- 
tence of  having  direct  or  indirect  communication  with 
the  brigands,  are  so  great  as  to  render  the  remedy 
almost  worse  than  the  evil,  and  induce  them  to  peti- 
tion the  authorities  to  withdraw  the  Soubaris  sent  for 
their  protection. 

If  these  policemen  are  headed  by  an  honest  and 
courageous  chief,  as  occasionally  happens,  and  he  sets 
to  work  earnestly  to  do  his  duty,  success  is  almost 
certain,  and  the  brigands  are  either  captured,  destroyed. 


CH.  XI.  Criminal  Sentences.  279 


or  dispersed.  Those  who  are  caught  are  disarmed, 
handcuifed,  and,  if  numerous  and  of  a  desperate  cha- 
racter, chained  in  couples  and  marched  off  to  prison. 
Still  the  hardy  freebooters  are  not  dispirited,  for 
if  they  are  wealthy,  or  the  proofs  of  their  crime  are 
not  transparently  clear,  their  chances  of  escape, 
especially  in  the  interior,  are  not  small,  and  bribery 
affords  them  a  read}'  means  of  regaining  their 
liberty. 

When  brigands  disperse  or  retire  in  winter  from  the 
field  of  action,  tlie}^  find  shelter  in  a  well-protected 
refuge.  Such  places  are  easily  found  in  the  country 
chiftUks  of  influential  beys,  who,  from  motives  of 
self-preservation  or  ignorance  of  their  guests'  ante- 
cedents, allow  their  Albanian  guards  to  harbour  the 
malefactors  Avho  venture  to  seek  shelter  under  their 
roof 

The  severe  laws  formerly  existing  in  Turkey  for  the 
punishment  of  crime,  whereby  mutilation  was  ordained 
in  certain  cases,  are  no  longer  in  use.  Crime,  accord- 
ing to  its  extent  and  the  circumstances  that  surround 
it,  is  punishable  by  imprisonment  for  a  certain  period, 
or  condemnation  to  death ;  the  sentence,  however,  is 
seldom  put  into  execution  except  in  very  bad  cases, 
or  when  the  authorities  are  desii'ous  of  makmg  an 
example  of  severity  in  the  town.  When  a  long  and 
careful  procedure  has  taken  place  before  both  the  civil 
and  religious  courts,  the  Kadi  decrees  the  sentence. 


2 So  The  People  of  Turkey.  n.  w. 

which  must  be  presented  to  the  Sultan  for  his 
sanction  before  it  can  be  carried  out.  The  culprit  is 
strung  up  to  some  shop  front  in  the  most  fi-equented 
part  of  the  bazar,  or  decapitated,  and  his  head 
exposed,  sometimes  for  three  days,  in  the  market 
place. 

I  have  heard  many  stories  of  the  outrages  of 
brigands  during  my  long  residence  in  remote  and 
semi-barbarous  parts  of  the  country.  I  have  even 
been  in  close  contact  with  some  and  on  a  friendly 
footing,  and  once  escaped  from  their  pursuit  only 
thanks  to  the  swiftness  of  a  powerful  horse.  On 
two  other  occasions,  yielding  to  necessity  and  in 
the  interest  of  self-preservation,  I  accepted  the  ser- 
vices of  two  or  three  Albanians  who  were  suspected 
of  being  cut-throats,  instead  of  the  Government 
escort. 

They  were  fine,  hardy  fellows,  with  deep  scars  on 
their  faces,  that  attested  the  lease  upon  which  they 
held  their  life  and  the  manner  in  which  they  had  dis- 
puted it  Avith  others.  They  were  reputed  to  be  as 
venturesome  in  crime  as  they  were  ready  to  sacrifice 
their  lives,  if  need  were,  for  the  preservation  of  those 
entrusted  to  their  care.  I  penetrated  into  deep 
gorges  with  these  men,  and  stopped  in  isolated  and 
ill-reputed  khans,  and  throughout  the  night  slept  as 
securely  as  if  I  had  been  in  ni}^  own  home.  The 
worst  of   men,    like   the  wildest   of   beasts,    has   his 


cir.  XI.  Brigand  Attacks.  281 


good  side ;  the  secret  of  finding  this  out  lies  in 
striking  the  right  chord ;  put  the  Albanian  on  his 
honour,  and  he  will  never  desert  you  or  betray  your 
trust. 

The  attacks  made  by  brigands  vary  according  to  the 
locality,  the  nature  of  the  enterprise,  and  the  result 
desii'ed.  Should  the  attack  be  upon  a  caravan  of 
peasants  returning  home  from  market  or  elsewhere, 
they  are  waylaid,  stripped  of  all  they  possess,  cruelly 
beaten,  wounded,  and  sometimes  killed.  When  the 
assault  is  directed  against  a  person  that  has  been 
singled  out  for  them  either  for  his  wealth  or  other 
pm-poses,  the  assault  made  upon  him  and  his  escort  is 
always  of  a  murderous  nature,  terminating  in  the  in- 
fliction of  cruel  wounds  or  death. 

The  long  gun  of  the  Albanian,  or  the  yataghans  of 
his  equally  dreaded  companions,  are  ever  suspended 
over  the  heads  of  the  wealthy  Chorbadjis :  when  the 
slightest  opportunity  is  afforded  they  assault  the  vil- 
lages, rob,  murder,  and  carry  off  hostages  m  the 
persons  of  young  men  or  boys — the  sons  of  people 
who  are  sufficiently  wealthy  to  redeem  them  by  the 
payment  of  large  ransoms. 

Such  attacks  are  of  not  unfrequent  occurrence,  es- 
pecially in  troubled  times,  when  the  ends  of  justice 
are  rarely  attained  in  the  punishment  of  the  crimmals 
or  the  recovery  of  lost  property. 

Klicradjis,  the  brave  and  trustworthy  fellows  who 


282  The  People  of  Ttcrkey.  i>r.  n. 

undertake  to  convey  the  goods  of  the  merchants  from 
town  to  town  on  the  backs  of  their  horses  and  mules, 
and  the  Tatar  couriers,  who  are  entrusted  with  the 
transport  of  sums  of  money,  are  great  temptations  to 
brigands.  The  last  attack  on  a  lOieradji  I  heard  of 
took  place  last  summer  when  he  and  his  companion,  an 
Albanian  Mohammedan,  had  quitted  one  of  the  smaller 
towns  in  the  Vilayet  of  Salonika,  conveying  a  consider- 
able sum  of  money  concealed  in  the  sacks  of  corn  with 
wliich  his  animals  were  laden.  While  on  the  road, 
and  a  short  distance  from  their  destination,  they  were 
suddenly  attacked  by  two  brigands,  who  wounded  the 
Christian  Kheradji,  and,  after  a  struggle,  succeeded  in 
disarming  the  Mohammedan.  They  then  searched  the 
persons  of  the  two  men,  and  not  finding  the  expected 
booty  proceeded  to  cut  open  the  sacks  and  abstract 
the  money,  after  which  tliey  made  off,  leaving 
the  unfortunate  Kheradjis  to  find  their  way  back 
to  the  town  they  had  left,  and  to  which  both  were 
strangers. 

Next  morning  the  Albanian  presented  himself  before 
the  Medjliss,  or  local  court,  to  deposit  his  complaint ; 
on  looking  round  he  started,  and  pointing  to  one  of  the 
members  of  the  Bench  exclaimed,  "  By  Allah  and  Mo- 
hammed I  swear  that  here  is  one  of  the  two  brigands 
that  attacked  us  yesterday  !  If  any  one  doubts  my  word 
let  this  man's  house  be  searched,  and  a  jacket  with  a 
torn  sleeve  will  be  found,  to  attest  the  truth  of  my 


CH.  XI.       Attack  on  a  Chorbadjis  House.         283 


accusation  !  "  The  culprit,  in  the  midst  of  the  general 
surprise  and  confusion,  made  his  escape.  Search  was 
made  in  his  house,  and  the  jacket  descrihed  b}'  the 
Kheradji  found,  but  the  owner  has  not  since  been 
heard  of. 

Another  robbery  of  a  far  more  daring  and  serious 
nature  was  attempted  by  a  gang  of  Albanians  in  the 
autumn  of  1876  in  the  town  of  Vodena.  The  assailants, 
seven  in  number,  had  been  frequenily  noticed  lurk- 
ing in  the  woods  and  gardens  that  lie  in  the 
beautiful  plain  by  which  this  picturesque  town  is  sur- 
rounded. The  brigands  had  marked  out  the  house  of 
one  of  the  wealthy  Chorbadjis  as  the  object  of  their 
attack.  This  man  possessed  a  certain  amount  of  edu- 
cation, and  had  taken  the  precaution  of  building  a  house 
sufficiently  solid  to  protect  himself  and  family  and  to 
secure  his  treasure.  The  building  was  not  large  but 
well  protected,  and  surrounded  by  a  large  courtyard 
with  high  walls  and  a  strong  gate.  The  house  door 
was  very  solid  and  furnished  with  triple  bolts  ;  and  the 
windows,  opening  on  a  verandah,  were  well-barred. 
The  robbers  having  planned  their  attack  and  posted  a 
sentinel  at  the  only  open  end  of  the  street,  proceeded 
to  attack  the  gate.  Finding  it  impossible  to  break 
it  open,  they  undermined  it,  and  entered  the  yard. 
The  first  barrier  thus  passed,  and  persuaded  that  an 
attempt  on  the  house-door  would  prove  fruitless,  they 
placed  a  ladder  which  they  found  against  the  verandah, 


284  The  People  of  Turkey.  pt.  n. 

sup])osiiig  that  where  the  Chorhaclji  and  liis  wife  slum- 
bered there  wouhl  their  treasure  he.  They  set  to 
Avork  at  the  window  of  this  chamber,  attempting  to 
demolish  the  iron  bars. 

The  night  was  dark  and  stormy  and  the  rain  fell 
heavily,  but  the  unconscious  slumberers  were  not 
awakened  for  some  time.  At  length  the  wife  of  the 
Chorbadji,  startled  by  the  unaccustomed  noise  at 
the  window,  aroused  her  husband  and  acquainted 
him  Avith  what  was  going  on.  His  coolness  and 
courage  were  quite  equal  to  the  occasion,  and  after  a 
short  consultation  with  his  wife,  he  decided  upon  using 
the  firearms  that  hung  against  the  wall.  It  was  a 
terrible  moment  for  both.  Standing  a  little  on  one 
side,  and  protected  by  the  darkness  of  the  room,  they 
could  see  several  men  trj-ing  to  force  the  bars.  To' 
face  these  men  openly  was  certain  death,  and  it  was 
hard  to  get  a  good  aim  at  them.  He  decided  finally 
to  atteanpt  a  shot,  first  calling  out  in  a  determined 
voice,  "Who  goes  there?  Let  him  leave  the  spot, 
or  he  is  a  dead  man  !  " 

This  appeal,  however,  instead  of  having  the  desired 
effect  stimulated  the  energy  of  the  brigands,  who, 
forming  into  two  bands,  now  attacked  the  door  of  the 
house  as  well,  and  were  making  strenuous  efforts  to 
open  it.  The  Chorbadji,  cautiously  advancing  to- 
wards the  side  of  the  window  and  screened  by  the 
projecting  walls,  fired  his  pistol  and  shot  one  of  the 


cH.  XI.  The  Chorbadjis  Defence.  285 

Albanians  dead  who  stood  on  the  ladder ;  another 
mounted,  and  a  second  shot  stretched  him  wounded 
on  the  floor  of  the  verandah.  The  rest,  whose  shots 
into  the  room  proved  ineffective,  abandoned  the 
window  and  went  to  the  door,  at  which  they  continued 
pounding  with  the  fury  of  fiends,  but  as  yet  to  no 
effect. 

In  the  meantime  the  brave  couple,  freed  from  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  their  enemies,  struck  a  light, 
find  while  the  husband  was  pouring  his  fire  upon  them 
the  wife  loaded  his  pistols.  A  girl  Avho  slept  in  the 
next  room  opened  her  window  and  called  loudly  for 
help,  but  was  nearly  paying  for  her  rashness  with  her 
life,  as  one  of  the  brigands  in  tlie  yard  fired  at  her, 
and  the  ball  struck  the  iron  bar  against  which  her 
head  Avas  pressed,  but  glanced  off. 

The  Albanians,  after  some  further  efforts,  began  to 
fear  the  consequences  of  the  alarm  the  affra}'  was  be- 
ginning to  excite  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  bethought 
themselves  of  making  good  their  retreat.  But  jjre- 
viously  to  doing  so  they  cut  off  the  head  of  their  dead 
comrade  to  avoid  detection,  and  carried  it  away  with 
them,  together  with  theii*  wounded.  A  few  weeks  sub- 
sequently, the  assault  was  renewed,  but  the  owner  was 
well  prepared  to  receive  and  repel  it,  without,  however, 
being  able  to  obtain  definite  peace  and  security  for  his 
home. 

The  Albanians,  doubly  incensed  against  him  for  the 


2  86  The  People  of  Tui'key.  it.  n. 

loss  of  their  comrade  and  tlieir  disappointment  at  not 
having  heen  able  to  effect  their  purpose,  sent  threaten- 
ing messages  to  the  Chorbadji,  and  claimed  160Z.  for 
the  widow  and  children  of  the  slain  brigand,  or  in  lieu 
thereof  himself  to  pay  the  debt  with  his  life.  The 
l")oor  man,  being  hard  pressed,  appealed  to  the  Kaima- 
kam,  or  sub-governor  of  the  town,  for  jorotection  ;  but 
this  dignitary,  being  an  Albanian,  old  and  void  of 
energy,  and  incapable  of  bringing  the  culprits  to  jus- 
tice, offered  his  services  as  peace-maker  between  the 
two  parties,  and  proposed  a  compromise  for  half  that 
sum.  The  Chorbadji  refused  to  pay  anything,  and 
the  Albanians  renewed  their  threats.  The  persecuted 
man  in  the  m.eantime  had  to  remain  indoors  on  the 
pretext  of  ill-health,  and  only  expects  to  be  able  to 
regain  his  liberty  when  affairs  settle  and  better  times 
come. 

Among  the  many  sad  cases  of  children  and  youths 
being  carried  off  from  the  villages,  which  have  become 
so  prevalent  during  these  disordered  times,  I  may 
relate  one  which  happened  last  year,  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Caterina,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Olymjous. 
The  victim  Avas  a  fine  promising  young  Greek  of 
two  and  twenty,  an  only  son,  doated  upon  by  a 
grief-stricken  mother,  whose  husband  had  been  killed 
by  brigands.  This  youth  was  suddenly  attacked  as  he 
was  returning  home,  carried  off,  and  never  more  heard 
of.     The    unfortunate  mother,   distracted  with  grief. 


cir.  xr.  Political  Brigandage.  287 

and  prompted  b}^  mingled  hope  and  despair,  wandered 
up  to  the  mountains,  and  for  da3's  was  seen  by  the 
shepherds  roaming  about  and  calling  for  her  son.  It 
was  thought  that  he  had  been  put  to  death  in  conse- 
quence of  his  father  having  killed  one  of  the  brigands 
that  had  attacked  him. 

I  have  not  included  the  Circassians  as  members  of 
this  general  fraternit}'  of  brigands,  because  they  form 
a  distinct  set,  who,  ever  since  their  orrival  in  this 
country,  have  been  notorious  for  theft  and  crime  and 
outrage. 

Although  political  brigandage  has  ceased  to  exercise 
its  former  influence  in  the  country,  it  has  in  a  small 
degree  again  made  its  appearance  as  an  inseparable 
incident  of  war  and  internal  trouble.  A  few  bands, 
mustering  from  thirty  to  fifty  men,  have  lately  made 
their  appearance  in  different  parts  of  European  Tur- 
ke3^  They  are  composed  of  Greek  desperadoes,  sup- 
posed to  be  the  agents  of  an  'Eratpeta  or  secret  societ}''  of 
violent  Greek  patriots  holding  extreme  views.  Their 
object  in  maintaining  these  Klej^hts  in  different  locali- 
ties is  that  of  having  them  in  readiness  in  case  of 
an  insurrection  among  the  discontented  peasantry.  One 
or  two  of  these  bands  have  been  stationed  since  last 
spring  in  the  district  of  Caterina.  They  have  not 
been  known  to  molest  any  one ;  but  their  presence 
somewhat  kept  in  check  the  Albanian  brigands  and 
prevented  them  devastating  the  Greek  villages.     The 


288  The  People  of  Ttirhey.  pt.  n. 

Kleplits  obtained  their  provisions  from  the  peasants, 
for  which  they  regularly  and  scrupulously  paid.  Tlie 
Eteria  that  supports  these  individuals  is  disapproved 
of  by  the  Greek  authorities,  who  consider  it  an  element 
of  disorder  and  trouble. 


END    OF   VOL.    I. 


BRADBUUY,  AGNEW     &,  CO.,   PRINTERS,  WHITEFRIAES. 


60,  Ar.BEiiARLE  Strekt,  London, 
May,  1878. 


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I  mon,  Pastop.al  Epistles, 

(^Hebrews. 

(  St.  James,  St.  John,  St. 
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incorporating  all  the  Recent  Changes  in  the  Law.    4  vols.    Svo.     60^. 

BLUNT  (Rev.  J.  J.).  Undesigned  Coincidences  in  the  Writings  of 
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BUCKLEY  (Arabella  B.).  A  Short  History  of  Natural  Science, 
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BUXTON  (Chaeles).  Memoiis  of  Sir  Thomas  Fowell  Buxton, 
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BYLES    (Sir  John),    Foundations  of  Religion  in  the  Mind  and 

Heart  of  Man.    Post  Svo.     6s. 

BYRON'S  (Lord)  LIFE  AND  WORKS  :— 

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Childe  Harold.     16mo.     25.  &d. 
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BUTTMANN'S  Lexilogus ;  a  Critical  Examination  of  the 
Meaning  of  numerous  Greek  Words,  chiefly  in  Homer  and  Eesiod, 
By  Rev.  J,  K.  Fishlake,    Svo.    12s. 

Irregular   Greek   Verbs,     With    all   the    Tenses 

extant — their  Formation,  Meaning,  and  Usage,    ivith   Notes,  by  Kev. 
J.  R.  Fishlake.    Post  Svo.   6s. 

CALLCOTT     (Lady),      Little     Arthur's    History    of    England. 

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CARNARVON  (Lord).  Portugal,  Gallicia,  and  the  Basqu 
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CARTWRIGHT  (W.  C),  The  Jesuits:  their  Ccmtitution  and 
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(,Tho8.)     Essay  on  English   Poetry..     With   Short 

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CESNOLA  (Gen.  L,  P.  di).     Cyprus;  its  Ancient  Cities,  Tombs, 

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CHUKTON  (Akchiieacon).     Poetical  Piemains,  Translations  and 

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CLASSIC     PEEACHEBS     OF     THE     ENGLISH     CHUECH. 

St.  James's  Lectures,  1877.  By  Caron  Lightfoot,  Prof.  Wace,  Dean 
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CLIYE'S  (Lord)  Life,     By  Eev.  G.  E.  Gleig.     Post  Svo.     3s.  6d. 

CLODE  (C.  M.).  Military  Forces  of  the  Crown ;  their  Administra- 
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Administration  of  Justice  under  Military  and  Martial 

Law,  as  applicable  to  the  Army,  Kavy,  Marine,  and  Auxiliary  Forces. 
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COLEEIDGE'S  (Samuel  Tatlor)  Table-Talk.  Portrait.  12mo.  3s.  6d. 
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COMPANIONS  FOE  THE  DEVOUT  LIFE.      St.  James'  Lec- 
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Church.  !    Ft;NELON's    OiuvravS     Spiuitl-elles. 

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Goulburn. 
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Andrewes'    Devotions.      Bishop  of 

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steth. 


Jf.remt  Taylor's  Holt  Livixg  and        Pilgrim's  Progress.    Dean  Ilowson. 
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COOK  (Canon).     Sermons  Preached  at  Lincoln's  Inn.    8vo.     9s. 

COOKE  (E.  \V.).  Leaves  from  my  Sketch-Book.  Being  a  selec- 
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COOKERY  (JIoDERN  Domestic).  Founded  on  Principles  of  Economy 
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COOPER    (T.  T.).     Travels  of   a   Pioneer  of   Commerce   on  an 

Overland  Journey  from  Ciiina  towards  India.    Illustrations.  8vo.  16s. 

CRABBE  (Rev.  George).  Life  and  Poetical  Works.  With  Illus- 
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CRAWFORD  &  BALCARRES  (Earl  of).  Etruscan  Inscriptions. 
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CRIPP3  (Wilfred).  Old  English  Plate  :  Ecclesiastical, Decorative, 
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CROKER  (J.  W.).  Progressive  Geography  for  Children. 
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Boswell's   Life   of   Johnson.      Including  the  Tour  to 

the  Hebrides.    Seucuih  Edition.     Portraits.    8vo.    12s. 

- — Early  Period  of  the  French  Revolution.    8vo.     15s. 

Historical  Essay  on  the  Guillotine.     Fcap.  8vo.     Is. 

CROWE  AND  CAVALCASELLE.  Lives  of  the  Early  Flemish 
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History   of    Painting  in  North  Italy,  from   14th   to 

16th  Century.    Derived  from  Researches  in  that  Country.    With  Il- 
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Life  and  Times  of   Titian,  Tvith  some  Account  of  his 

Family,  cliiefiy  from  new  and  unpublished  records.    With  Portrait  and 
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GUMMING  (R.  Gordon).    Five  Years  of  a  Hunter's  Life  in  the 

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CUNYNGH AME  (Sir  A  rthub).  Travels  in  the  Eastern  Caucasus, 
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Persia  and  Turkey.     AVitb  Map  and  Illustrations.    Svo.     ISs. 

CURTIUS'  (Professor)  Student's  Greek  Grammar,  for  the  Upper 

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CURZON  (Hon.  Robert).  "Visits  to  the  Monasteries  of  the  Levant. 

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CUST  (General).    Warriors  of  the  17th  Century— The  Thirty  Years' 

War.    2  Vols.    16s.    Civil  Wars  of  France  and  England.    2  Vols.  16s. 

Commanders  of  Fleets  and  Armies.    2  Vols.     ISs. 

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DAVY  (Sir  Humphry).     Consolations  in  Travel;  or,  Last  Days 
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Salmonia;    or,    Days    of    Fly    Fishing.      Woodcuts. 


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DARWIN  (Charles)  WOEKS  :— 

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Woodcuts.    Crown  Svo.    9s. 
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Crown  8vo.    6s. 
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Facts  and  Argument  for  Darwin,  By  Fritz  Muller. 
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DE  COSSON  (E.  a.).  The  Cradle  of  the  Blue  Nile;  a  Journey 
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Johnof  Etb'if'pia.  Map  and  Illustnitions.  2  vols.  Post  Svo.    21s. 

DENNIS  (George).  The  Cities  and  Cemeteries  of  Etruria.  A 
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DENT  (Emma).  Annals  of  Winchcombe  and  Sudeley,  With  120 
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DERBY  (Earl  op).  Iliad  of  Homer  rendered  into  English 
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DEEEY  (Bishop  op).  Witness  of  the  Psalms  to  Christ  and  Chris- 
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DEUTSCH  (Emanuel).  Talmud,  Islam,  The  Targums  and  other 
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DILKE  (Sir  C.  W.).  Papers  of  a  Critic.  Selected  from  the 
Writings  of  the  late  Ch.vs.  WENiwonTii  Dilke.  With  a  Biographi- 
cal Sketch.    2  Vols.     Svo.    24s. 

DOG-BREAKING,  with  Odds  and  Ends  for  those  who  love  the 
Dog  and  Gun.  By  Gen.  IIltchinson.  With  40  Illustrations. 
Ciown  Svo.      7s.  6(i, 


10  LIST  OF   WORKS 


DOMESTIC  MODERN  COOKERY.  Founded  on  Principles  of 
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Woodcuts.    Fcap.  8vo.    5s. 

DOUGLAS'S(SirHo\vard)  Life  and  Adventures.  Portrait.  8vo.  155. 

Theory  and  Practice  of  Gunnery.     Plates.     8vo.    21s. 

Construction  of  Bridges  and  the  Passage  of  Rivers 

in  Military  Operations.    PUtes.     Svo.    21s. 

(War.;  Horse-Shoeing ;  As  it  Is,  and  As  it  Should  be. 


Illustrations.    Post  Svo.    7s.  Cd. 

DRAKE'S  (Sir  Francis)  Life,  Voyages,  and  Exploits,  by  Sea  and 
Land.    By  John  Babbow.    Post  Svo.    2s. 

DRINKWATER  (John).  History  of  the  Siege  of  Gibraltar, 
1779-1783.  With  a  Description  and  Account  of  that  Garrison  from  the 
Earliest  Periods.    Post  Svo.    2s. 

DUCANGE'S  Medieval  Latin-Ekglish  Dictionart.  Translated 
and  Edited  by  Eev.  E.  A. Dayman  and  J.H.  Hessels.   Small 4to. 

[In  preparation. 

DU  CHAILLU  (Paul  B.).  Equatorial  Africa,  with  Accounts 
of  the  Gorilla,  the  Nest-building  Ape,  Chimpanzee,  Crocodile,  &c. 
lUustratiens.     Svo.    21s. 

Journey  to  Asbango  Land;  and  Further  Pene- 
tration into  Equatorial  Africa.    Illustrations.    Svo.    21». 

DDFFERIN  (Lord).  Letters  from  High  Latitudes;  a  Yacht 
Voyage  to  Iceland,  Jan  May  en,  and  Spitzbergen.  Woodcuts.  Post 
Svo.    7s.  6d. 

DUNCAN  (Major).  History  of  the  Royal  Artillery.  Com- 
piled from  the  Original  Records.    With  Portraits.     2  Vols.    Svo.   30s. 

English  in  Spain;  or.  The  Story  of  the  War  of  Suc- 
cession, 18?-i  and  1840.  Compiled  from  the  Keports  of  the  British 
Commissioners     With  Illuttratiuns.     Svo.     16..-. 

EASTLAKE  (Sia  Charles).  Contributions  to  the  Literature  of 
the  Fine  Arts.  With  Memoir  of  the  Author,  and  Selections  from  hiB 
Correspondence.     By  Lauy  Easti.akb.    2  Vols.    Svo.    24s. 

EDWARDS  (W.  H.).  Voyage  up  the  River  Amazons,  including  a 
Visit  to  Para.    Post  Svo.    2s. 

EIGHT  MONTHS  AT  ROME,'during  the  Vatican  Council,  with 
a  Daily  Account  of  the  Proceedings.  By  Pomponio  Leto.  Trans- 
lated from  the  Original.    Svo.     123. 

ELDON'S  (Lord)  Public  and  Private  Life,  with  Selections  from 
his  Correspondence  and  Diaries.  By  Hobace  Twiss.  Portrait.  2 
Vols.    Post  Svo.    21i. 

ELGIN  (Lord).  Letters  and  Journals.  Edited  by  Theodore 
Walbond.     With  Preface  by  Dean  Stanley.    Svo.  14s. 

ELLESMERE    (Lord).      Two    Sieges    of  Vienna   by  the   Turks. 

Translated  from  the  German.    Post  Svo.    2s. 

ELLIS  (W.).  Madagascar  Revisited.  Setting  forth  the  Perse- 
cutions and  Heroic  Sufiferings  of  the  Native  Christians.  Illustrations. 
Svo.    16s. 

1  Memoir.      By    His    Son.       With   his   Character  and 

Work.    By  Kkv.  Henby  Allon,  D.D.    Portrait.    Svo.    10s.  6d. 

(Roeikson)  Poems  and  Fragments  of  Catullus.    16mo.  5s. 


PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY.  11 

ELPHINSTONE  (Hon.  Mountstuart).  History  of  India— the 
Hindoo  and  Mahomedan  Periods.  Edited  by  Pkofessoe  Cowell. 
Map.    8vo.    18s. 

(H.    W.)    Patterns   for   Turning;     Comprising 

Elliptical  and  other  Figures  cut  on  the  Lathe  witliout  the  use  of  any 
Ornamental  Chuck.    'With  70  illustrations.     Small  4to.    15s. 

ENGLAND.     See  CALLCorr,  Ckokek,  Hcme,  Makkham,  Smith, 

and  Stanhope. 

ESSAYS  ON  CATHEDRALS.  With  an  Introduction.  By 
Dean  Hovvson.     8vo.    12s. 

ELZE  (Karl).  Life  of  Lord  Byron.  With  a  Critical  Essay  on  his 
Place  in  Literature.  Translated  from  the  German.  With  Portrait.  Svo.  16s. 

TERGUSSON    (James).     History  of  Architecture  in  all  Countries 
from  the  Earliest  Times.  With  l.COO  Illustrations.  4  Vols.  Medium  Svo. 
Vol.  I.  &  II.  Ancient  and  Mediaeval.     63s. 
Vol.  III.  Indian  &  Eastern.  42s.    Vol.  IV.  Modern.   Zls.6d. 

Rude  Stone  Monuments  in  ah  Countries;  their  Age 

and  Uses.     With  230  Illustrations.     Medium  8vo.  '2is. 

Holy   Sepulchre  and  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 


Woodcuts.    Svo.    7.S.  6d. 

Temples  of  the    Jews  and   other   buildings  in 

the  Haram  Area  at  Jerusalem.     With  Illustrations.    4to.     42it. 

FLEMING  (Professor).     Student's  Manual  of  Moral  Philosophy. 

VVitli  tiucitatious  and  KeiVreuces.     Post  Svo.    7s.  6d. 

ELOWER  GARDEN.    By  Rev.  Thos.  James.    Fcap.  8vo.    Is. 

FOEBES  (Capt.  C.J.  F.S.j  Sketches  of  Native  Burmese;  Life, 
Manners,  Customs,  and  iteligion.    Crown  Svo.  [In  the  Frtss. 

FORD  (Richard).    Gatherings  from  Spain.     Post  Svo.     3s.  Qd. 

FORSYTH  (William).  Hortensius;  an  Historical  Essay  on  the 
Office  and  Duties  of  an  Advocate.    Illustrations.    Svo.  liis. 

History  of  AncientManuBcripts.   Po&t8vo.     2s.  6c?. 

Novels    and    Novelists    of   the  18th  Century,  in 

Illustration  of  the  Manners  and  Moials  of  the  Age.    Post  Svo.    10s.  6d, 

FORTUNE  (Robert).  Narrative  of  Two  Visits  to  the  Tea  Countries 
of  China,  1S43-52.    Woodcuts.    2  Vols.    Post  Svo.     ISs. 

FORSTER  (John).  The  Early  Life  of  Jonathan  Swift.  1667-1711. 
With  Portrait.     Svo.    15s. 

FOSS  (Edward).  Biographia  Juridica,  or  Biographical  Dictionary 
of  tlse  Judges  of  Lngland,  from  the  Conquest  to  the  Present  Time, 
1066-1S70.     Medium  Svo.     21s. 

FRANCE  (History  of).     See  Makkham — Smith — Student's. 

FRENCH  IN  ALGIEKS;  The  Soldier  of  the  Foreign  Legion— 
and  the  Prisoners  of  Abd-ei-Kadir.  Translated  by  Lady  Dcff  GoBDoa. 
Post  Svo.    2s. 

FRERE  (  Sir  Bartle  ).    Indian  Missions.     Small  Svo.     2s.  6d. 

Eastern  Africa  as  a  field  for  Missionary  Labour.     With 

Map.    Crown  Svo.   5j. 

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Prevent  Future  Far..int^^  in  Inoia.    With  Maps.    Crown  bvo.      5s. 


GALTON  (Francis).  Art  of  Travel ;  or.  Hints  on  the  Shifts  and 
Contrivances    available     in  Wild  Countries.     Woodcuts.    Post  8vo. 

GEOGRAPHY.    See  Croker— Smith— Students. 
GEOGRAPHICAL  SOCIETY'S  JOURNAL.    {Published  Yearly) 
GEORGE  (Ernest).  The  Mosel ;  a  Series  of  Twenty  Etchings,  with 

Descriptive  Letterpress.     Imperial  4to.    42s. 
■ Loire  and    South   of  France ;    a    Series  of   Twenty 

Etchings,  with  Descriptive  Text.    Folio.     42«. 
GERMANY  (History  of).     See  Markham. 
GIBBON   (Edward).     History   of  the   Decline   and   Fall   of  the 

Koman  Empire.    Edited  by  Milman  and  Guizot.    Edited,  with  Notes  , 

by  Dr.  Wm.  Smith.    Maps.    8  Vols.   8vo.    60s. 

The   Student's   Edition ;    aa  Epitome    of  the   above 

work,  incorporating  the  Researches  of  Recent  Commentators.    By  Dr. 
Wm.  Smith.     Woodcuts.    Post  8vo.    7s.  6d. 

GIFFARD  (Edward).     Deeds  of  Naval  Daring ;    or,  Anecdotes  of 

the  British  Navy.    Feap.  Svo.    Zs.  Gd. 
GLADSTONE    (W.  E.).      Rome   and   the    Newest  Fashions    in 

Religion.    Three  Tracts.    Svo.    7s.  6d. 
GLEIG  (G.  R.).     Campaigns  of  the  British  Army  at  Washington 

and  New  Orleans.    Post  Svo.    2*. 

Story  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo,     Post  Svo.   3s.  Qd. 

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Life  of  Lord  Clive.     Post  Svo.     3s.  6d. 

— Sir  Thomas  Munro,     Post  Svo.  3.s.  Qd. 

GLYNNE  (Sir  Stephen  R.).  Notes  on  the  Churches  of  Kent. 
With  Preface  by  W.  H.  Gladstone,  M.P.     Illustrations.    Svo.    12s. 

GOLDSMITH'S  (Oliver)  AVorks.  Edited  with  Notes  by  Peter 
Cunningham.     Vignettes.    4  Vols.    Svo.    30s. 

GORDON  (Sir  Alex.).  Sketches  of  German  Life,  and  Scenes 
from  the  War  of  Liberation.    Post  Svo.    3j.  Sd. 

— (Lady  Duff)  Amber- Witch :  A  Trial  for  Witch- 
craft.   Post  SvO.    2s. 

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Legion.    2.  The  Prisoners  of  Ahd-el-Kadir.    Post  Svo.    2s. 

GRAMMARS.    See  Curtius  ;    Hall  ;    Hutton  ;    King  Edward  ; 

Matthu.;  Maetznee;  Smith. 
GREECE  (History  of).    See  Grote— Smith— Student. 
GUIZOT  (M.).   Meditations  on  Christianity.  3  Vols.  Post  Svo.  30«. 
GROTE'S  (George)  WORKS  •— 

History  of  Greece.     From  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  close 

of  the  generation  contemporary  with  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Library   Edition.    Portrait,    Maps,   and    Plans.     10  Vols.    Svo.     120s. 

Cabinet  Edition.     Portrait  and  Plans.  12  Vols.     Post  Svo.  6s.  each. 

PlatOj  and  other  Companions  of  Socrates.     3  Vols.   Svo.   45s. 

Aristotle.    2  Vols.     Svo.     325. 

Minor  Works.     With  Critical  Remarks.      By  Alex.  Bain. 

Portrait.    Svo.    14s. 
Fragments  on   Ethical  Subjects.     With  Introduction.     By 

Alexander  Bain.     Svo.    7s.  Gd. 
Letters  on  Switzerland  in  1847.     6s. 
Personal  Life.     Compiled  from  Family  Documents,  Original 

Letters,  ic.    By  Mrs.  Grote.    Portrait.    Svo.    12s. 


PUBLISHED  BY  MR.   MURRAY.  13 


HALL  (T.   D.)  AND  Dr.  "Wm.  SMITH'S  School  Manual  of  English 
Grammar.    With  Copious  Exercises.     12mo.    35.  6d. 

—  Primary    Englisli    Grammar    for    Elementary   Schools. 


Based  on  the  above  work.    16mo.     Is. 

Child's  First  Latin  Book,  including  a  Systematic  Treat- 
ment of  the  New  Pronunciation,  and  a  full  Praxis  of  Nouus,  Adjec- 
tives,  and  Pronouns.    16mo.    Is.  61^. 

HALLAM'S  (Henry)  WORKS  :— 

The  Constitutional  History  op  England,  from  the  Acces- 
sion of  Henry  the  Seventh  to  the  Death  of  George  the  Second.  Library 
Edition.  3  "Vols.  8vo.  30s.  Calinet  Edition,  3  Vols.  Post  8vo.  12s. 

Student's  Edition  of  the  above  work.  Edited  by  Wm. 
Smith,  D.CL.    Post  8vo.     7s.  6d. 

History  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Library 
Edition.   3  Vols.   8vo.  30s.    Cabinet  Edition,  3  Vols.  Post  8vo.    12s. 

Student's  Edition  of  the  above  work.  Edited  by  Wm. 
Smith,  D.CL.   Post  8vo.    7s.  6rf. 

Literary  History  of  Europe  during  the  15th,  16th,  and 
17TII  Centuries.  Library  Edition.  3  Vols.  8vo.  36s.  Cabinet  Edition, 
4  Vols.    Post8vo.    16s. 

HALLAM'S  (Arthur)  Literary lEemains ;  in  Verse  and  Prose. 
Portrait.    Fcap.  8vo.    3s.  6d. 

HAMILTON  (Gen.  Sir  F.  W.).  History  of  the  Grenadier  Guards. 
From  Original  Documents  in  the  Rolls'  Keconls,  War  Office,  Kegimental 
Records,  &c.  With  Illustrations.    3  Vols.    8vo.    63s. 

HART'S  ARMY  LIST.    {Published  Quarterly  and  Annually.)  ] 

HAY  (Sir  J.  H.  Drummond).  Western  Barbary,  its  Wild  Tribes 
and  Savage  Animals.    Post  8vo.   2s. 

HEAD'S  (Sir  Francis)  WORKS  :— 

The  Royal  Engineer.     Illustrations.     8vo.  125. 

Life  of  Sir  John  Burgoyne.  ';    Post  8vo,     Is. 

Rapid  Journeys  across  the  Pampas.     Post  8yo.     2s. 

Bubbles  from  the  Brunnen  op  Nassau.     Illustrations.     Post 
8vo.    7s.  6d. 

Stokers  and  Pokers  ;   or,   the  London  and  North  Western 
Railway.    Post  8vo.    2s. 

HEAD  (Sir  Edmund)  Shall  and  Will;  or,  Future  Auxiliary 
Verbs,    Fcap.  8vo.    4s. 

HEBER'S  (Bishop)  Journals  in  India.     2  Vols.     Post  Svo.     7«. 

Poetical  Works.     Portrait.    Fcap.  Sto.     3s.  6(L 

Hymns  adapted  to  the  Church  Service.     16mo.     Is.  6d. 


14  LIST  OF  WORKS 


FOREIGN  HANDBOOKS. 

HAND-BOOK— TRAVEL-TALK,   English,  French,  German,  and 

Italian.    18mo.   3s.  6d. 

HOLLAND  AND  BELGIUM.     Map  and  Plans. 

Post  8vo.     6s. 

NORTH      GERMANY    and    THE     RHINE,— 


The  Black  Forest,  the  Ilartz,  Thiirinfrerwald,  Saxon  Switzerland, 
Rii^'en  the  Giant  Mountains,  Taunus,  Odenwald,  Elass,  and  Loth- 
ringen.    Map  and  Plans.     Post  8vo.    10.?. 

SOUTH    GERMANY, —  Wurtetnburg,     Bavaria, 


Austria,  Styria,  Salzburg,  the  Austrian  and  Bavarian  Alps,  Tyrol,  Hnn- 
gaiy,  and  the  Danube,  from  Ulm  to  the  Black  Sea.  Map.   Post  8vo.  10s. 

PAINTING.  German,  Flemish,  and  Dutch  Schools. 


Illustrations.  2  Vols.   Post  8vo.    24s. 

LIVES  OP  EARLY  FLEMISH  PAINTERS.    By 


Ceowe  and  Cavalcasblle.    Illustrations.    Post  Svo.    10s.  6d. 

SWITZERLAND,   Alps  of  Savoy,  and  Piedmont. 


Maps.    Post  Svo.    9s. 

FRANCE,  Part  L  Normandy,  Brittany,  the  French 


Alps,  the  Loire,  the  Seine,  the  Garonne,  and  Pyrenees.    Post  Svo.    7s.  Gd. 
Part  II.    Central  France,  Auvergne,  the 


Cevennes,  Burgundy,  the  Rhone  and  Saone,  Provence,  Nimes,  Aries, 
Marseilles,  the  French  Alps,  Alsace,  Lorraine,  Champagne,  &c.  Maps. 
Post  Svo.    7s.  ed. 

MEDITERRANEAN    ISLANDS— Malta,  Corsica, 


Sardinia,  and  Sicily.     Maps.     Post  Svo.  [In  the  Press. 

ALGERIA.    Algiers,  Constanline,  Oran,  the  Atlas 


Range.    Map.    Post  Svo     9s. 

PARIS,  and  its  Environs.     Map,     16mo.     3s.  6d. 

SPAIN,  Madrid,  The  Castiles,  The  Basque  Provinces, 


Leon,  The  Asturias,  Galicia,  Estremadura,  Andalusia,  Konda,  Granada, 
Murcia,  Valencia,  Catalonia,  Aragon,  Navarre,  The  Balearic  Islands, 
&C.&C.    Maps.    Post  Svo.    20.?. 

PORTUGAL,    Lisbon,   Porto,   Cintra,  Mafra,  &c. 


Map,    Post  Svo.    12s. 

NORTH    ITALY,     Turin,    Milan,   Cremona,    the 


Italian  Lakes,  Bergamo,  Brescia,  Verona,  Mantua,  Vicenza,  Padua, 
Ferrara,  Bologna,  Ravenna,  Rimini,  Piacenza,  Genoa,  the  Riviera, 
Venice,  Parma,  Modena,  and  Romagna.     Map.    Post  Svo.    10s. 

CENTRAL  ITALY,  Florence,  Lucca,  Tuscany,  The 

Marches,Umbria,  and  late  Patrimony  of  St.  Peter's.  Map.  Post  Svo.  10s, 

ROME  AND  ITS  Environs.      Map.     Post  Svo.    10s. 

SOUTH  ITALY,   Naples,  Pompeii,  Herculaneum, 

and  Vesuvius.    Map.    Post  Svo.    10s. 

PAINTING,     The  Italian    Schools,     Illustrations. 


2  Vols.    Post  Svo.    30x. 

-"LIVES  OP  ITALIAN  PAINTERS,  from  Cimabue 


to   Bassano.    By  Mrs.  Jameson.     Portraits.    Post  Svo.     I2s. 

NORWAY,  Christiania,  Bergen,  Trondlijem.    The 


Fjelds  and  Fjords.    Map.    Po<t  Svo.    9s. 

—  SWEDEN,   Stockholm,  Upsala,    Gothenburg,   the 


Shores  of  the  Baltic,  &c.    Post  Svo.    6<. 

DENMARK,  Sleswig,  Holsteiu,  \  Copenhagen,  Jut- 


land, Iceland     Map.    Post  8vo.    6j- 


PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY,  16 


HAND-BOOK — RUSSIA,  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Poland,  and 

Finland.    Maps.    Post  8vo.     18s. 
GREECE,  the  Ionian    Islands,  Continental  Greece, 

Athens,  tbe  Peloponnesus,  the  Islands  of   the  JEsea.n  Sea,  Albania, 

Thessaly,  and  Macedonia.     Maps.     Post  870.    Ion. 

TURKEY    IN    ASIA — Constantinopi,e,  the    Bos- 


phorus,  Dardanelles,  Brousa,  Plain  of  Troy,  Crste,  Cyprus,  Smyrna, 
Ephesus,  the  Seven  Churches,  Coasts  of  the  Black  Sea,  Armenia, 
Mesopotamia,  &c.    Maps.     Post  Svo.    15s. 

EGYPT,  including   Descriptions  of  the  Course  of 


the  Nile  through  Egypt  and  Nubia,  Alexandria,  Cuiro,  and  Thebes,  the 
Suez  Canal,  the  Pyramids,  the  Peninsula  of  Sinai,  the  Oases,  the 
Fyoom,  &c.    Map.    Post  Svo.   15«. 

HOLY  LAND — Syria,   Palestine,  Peninsula    of 


Sinai,  Edom,   Syrian  Deserts, Petra,  Damascus  ;  and  Palmyra.     Maps. 
Post  Svo.    20s.     ***  Travelling  Map  of  Palestine.    In  a  case.    12s, 

INDIA  —  Bombay  and  Madras.      Map.     2  Vols. 


Post  Svo.    12s.  each. 


ENGLISH    HANDBOOKS. 

HAND-BOOK— MODERN  LONDON.    Map.     16mo.     3s.  6d. 

ENVIRONS  OF  LONDON  within    a  circuit  of  20 

miles.    2  Vols.    Crown  Svo.     21s. 

EASTERN  COUNTIES,  Chelmsford,  Harwich,  Col- 


chester, Maldon,  Cambridge,  Ely,  Newmarket,  Bury  St.  Edmunds, 
Ipswich,  Woodbridge.  Felixstowe,  Lowestoft,  Norwich,  Yarmouth, 
Cromer,  &c.    Map  and  Plans.     Post  Svo.    12.s. 

CATHEDRALS  of  Oxford,  Peterborough,  Norwich, 


Ely,  and  Lincoln.    With  90  Illustrations.    Crown  Svo.     18s. 
— KENT,   Canterbury,   Dover,   Ramsgate,  Sheerness, 

Rochester,  Chatham,  Woolwich.     Map.     Post  Svo.    7.?.  6d. 
SUSSEX,  Brighton,  Chichester,  Worthing,  Hastings, 

Lewes,  Arundel,  &c.    Map.    Post  Svo.     6.?. 

SURREY  AND  HANTS,  Kingston,  Croydon,  Rei- 


gate,    Guildford,    Dorking,   Boxhill,    Winchester,  Southampton,   New 
Forest,  Portsmouth,  and  Isle  OF  Wight.  Maps.     Tost  Svo.    10s. 

BERKS,   BUCKS,  AND    OXON,  Windsor,   Eton, 


Reading,  Aylesbury.  Uxbridge,  Wycombe,  Henley,  the  City  and  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  Blenheim,  and  the  Descent  of  the  Thames.  Map. 
Post  Svo.    7s.  erf. 

WILTS,  DORSET,   AND   SOMERSET,  Salisbury, 


Chippenham,  Weymouth.  Sherborne,  Wells,  Bath,  Bristol,  Taunton, 
&c.    Map.    Post  Svo.    10s. 

DEVON  AND   CORNWALL,  Exeter,  Ilfracombe, 


Linton,  Sidmouth,  Dawlish,  Teignmouth,  Plymouth,  Devonport,  Tor- 
quay, Launceston,  Truro,  Penzance,  Falmouth,  the  Lizard,  Land's  End, 
<ic.     Maps.    Post  Svo.    12s. 

-CATHEDRALS  of  Winchester,   Salisbury,   Exeter, 


Wells,  Chichester,  Rochester,  Canterbury,  and  St.  Albans.  With  130 
Illustrations.  2  Vols.  Crown  Svo.  36s.  St.  Albans  separately,  crown 
Svo.  6s. 

GLOUCESTER,  HEREFORD,  and  WORCESTER 


Cirencester,  Cheltenham,  Stroud,  Tewkesbury,  Leominster,  Ross,  Mal- 
vern, Kidderminster,  Dudley,  Bromsgrove,  Evesham.  Map.  Post  Svo.  9s. 

CATHEDRALS    of  Bristol,   Gloucester,   Hereford, 

Worcester,  and  Lichfield.  With  50  Illustrations.  Crown  Svo.    16«. 


16  LIST  OF  "WORKS 


HAND-BOOK — NORTH  WALES,  Bansror,  CarnarvoH,  Beaumaris, 

Snowdon,  Llanberis,  Dolgelly,  Cader  Idris,  Conway,  &c.    Map.    Post 

8vo.    Is. 
SOUTH   WALES,   Monmouth,    Llandaff,   Merthyr, 

Vale  of  Neath,  Pembroke,  Carmarthen,  Tenby,  Swansea,  The  Wye,  &c. 

Map.    Post  8vo.    7s. 

CATHEDRALS     OP    BANGOR.    ST.    ASAPH, 


Llaudaff,  and  St.  Daviil's.    With  Illustrations.     Post  8vo.    155. 

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE     AND      RUTLAND— 

Nortliampton,  Pcterboiough,  Towcester,  Daventry,  Market  Har- 
borough.  Kettering,  Wallingborough,  Thrapston,  Stamford,  Upping- 
ham, Oakbam.     Maps.     Post  8vo. 

DERBY,    NOTTS,    LEICESTER,     STAFFORD, 

Matlock,  Bakewell,  Chatsworth,  The  Peak,  Buxton,  Hardwick,  Dove 
Dule,  Ashbome,  Southwell,  Mansfield,  Retford,  Burton,  Bolvoir  Melton 
Mowbray,  Wolverhampton,  Lichfield,  Walsall,  Tamworth.  Map. 
Post  8vo.    ^s. 

SHROPSHIRE,  CHESHIRE    and  LANCASHIRE 


— Shrewsbury,  Ludlow,  Bridgnorth,  Oswestry,  Chester,  Crewe.Alderley, 
Stockport,  Birkenhead,  Warrington,  Bury,  Manchester,  Liverpool, 
Burnley,  Clitheroe,  Bolton,  Blackburn,  Wigac,  Preston,  Rochdale, 
Lancaster,  Southport,  Blackpool,  &c.     Map.    Post  Svo.    IOj. 

YORKSHIRE,   Doncaster,   Hull,   Selby,   Beverley, 


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History  of  France.      From  the  Conquest  by   the 


Gauls  to  1861.    Woodcuts.    12mo.    3s.  6d. 

History  of  Germany.    From  the  Invasion  by  Mariua 

<olS67.    Woodcuts.    12mo.    3s.6rf. 

MARLBOROUGH'S    (Sarah,   Duchess  of)    Letters.     Now  first 

published  from  the  Original  MSS.  at   Madresiield  Court.    With  an 

Introduction.    Svo.    10s.  6(J. 
MARRYAT   (Joseph).     History  of  Modern  and  Mediaeval  Pottery 

and  Porcelain.     With  a  Description  of  the  Manufacture.    Plates  and 

Woodcuts.    Svo.    42s. 

MARSH  (G.  P.).     Student's  Manual   of  the  English   Language. 
Edited  with  Additions.     By  Dk.  Wm.  Smith.    Post  8vo.    7s.  6rf. 

MASTERS  in  English  Theology.     The  King's  College  Lectures, 

1877.  By  Canon  Barry,  Dean  of  Sf.  Paul's  ;  Prof.  Plumptre,  Canon 
Westcott,  Canon  Farrar,  and  Prof.  Cheetham.  With  Introduction  by 
Canon  Barry.     Post  Svo.     7s.  6ii. 

MATTHIJi'S    Greek     Grammar.      Abridged      by     Blomfield, 

Revised  by  E.  S.  Crooke.    12mo.    is. 
MAUREL'S   Character,   Actions,   and    Writings    of   Wellington. 

Fcap.  Svo.    Is.  6d. 
MAYO  (Lord).     Sport  in  Aby.ssinia;  or,  the  Mareb  and  Tack- 

azzee.     With  Illustrations.    Crown  Svo.    12s. 


22  LIST  OF  WORKS 


MEADE  (Hon.  Herbkiit).  Eide  through  the  Disturbed  Districts  of 
New  Zealand,  with  a  Cruise  among  the  South  Sea  Islands.  AVith  Illus- 
tratiouB.    JMedium  8vo.     12«. 

MELVILLE  (Hermann).  Marquesas  and  South  Sea  Islands. 
2  Vols.    Fost  8vo.    78, 

MEREDITH  (Mks.  Charles).   Notes  and  Sketches  of  New  South 

Wales.    Post  Svo.    2s. 

MICHAEL  ANGELO,  Sculptor,  Painter,  and  Architect.  His  Life 
and  "Works.    By  C.  Heath  Wilson".    Illustrations.     Koyal  Svo.    26s. 

MILLINGTON  (Rev.  T.  S.).  Sigus  and  Wonders  fa  the  Laud  of 
Ham,  or  the  Ten  Plagues  of  Egypt,  with  Ancient  and  Aloderu  Illustra- 
tions.    Woodcuts.    Post  Svo.    7s.  Gd. 

MILMAN'S  (Dean)  WORKS:— 

History  of  the  Jews,  from  the  earliest  Period  down  to  ilodern 

Times.    3  Vols.     Post  8vo.    ISs. 

Early  Christianity,  from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  the  Aboli- 
tion ot  PaKanism  in  the  Roman  Empire.    3  Vols.     Post  Svo.     ISs. 

Latin    Christianity,   including   that  of  the  Popes  to    the 

Pontificate  of  Nicholas  V.    9  Vols.    Post  Svo.  51s. 

Annals  of  St.  Paul's  Cathkdral,  from  the  Romans  to   the 

funeral  of  AVelliuf^ton.     Illustrations.    Svo. 
Character  AND  Conduct  op  the  Apostles  considered  as  an 

Evidence  of  Christianity.    Svo.  10s.  6d. 

QuiNTi  HoRATii  Flacci  Opera,     W^ith  100  Woodcuts.     Small 

Svo.     7s.  6d. 

Life  op   Quintus  Horatius  Flaccus.      With  Illustrations. 

Svo.    9s. 
Poetical  AVokks.     The  Pall  of  Jerusalem — Martyr  of  Antioch 

— Balshazzar — Taraor — Anne  Baleyn — Fazio,  <Slc.  With  Portrait  and 
Illustrations.     3  Vnls.     Fcap.  Svo.     ISs. 

Fall  of  Jerusaleje.     Fcap.  Svo.    Is. 

MILMAN  (Capt.  K  A.)  Wayside  Cross.    Post  Svo.    2s. 

MIVART  (St.  George).  Lessons  from  Nature;  as  manifested  in 
Mind  and  Jlatter.    Svo.     15s. 

MODERN  DOMESTIC  COOKERY.     Founded  on  Principles '  of 

Economy  and  Practical  Knowledge.  New  Edition.  Woodcnta.  Fcap.Svo.  5s. 

MONGREDIEN  (Augustus).  Trees  and  Shrubs  for  English 
Plantation.  A  Selection  and  Description  of  the  most  Ornamental 
which  will  flourish  in  the  open  air  in  our  climate.  With  Classified 
Lists.     With  30  Illustrations.    Svo.    IGs. 

MOORE   (Thomas).     Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Byron.      Cabinet 

Edition.  With  Plates.  6  Vols.  Fcap.  Svo.  18s. ;  Popular  Ediiion, 
with  Portraits.    Koyal  Svo.    7s.  6i. 

MORESBY  (Capt.),  R.N.     Discoveries  in  New  GuiEca,  Polynesia, 
Torres  Straits,  &c.,  during  the  cruise  of  H.M.S.  Basilisk.    Slap  an 
Illustrations.    Svo.    15s. 

MOTLEY  (J.  L.).  History  of  the  United  Netherlands :  from  the 
Death  of  William  the  Silent  to  the  Twelve  Years'  Truce,  1609.  Library 
Edition.     Portraits.   4  Vols.    Post  Svo.     6s.  each. 

Life    and    Death    of     John    of    Barneveld, 

Advocate  of  Holland.  With  a  View  of  the  Primary  Causes  and 
Movements  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Library  Edition.  Illustrations. 
2  Vols.  Svo.  26s.     Cabinet  Edition.    :i  vols.    Post  Svo.     12s, 


PUBLISHED  BY  AIR.   MURliAY.  23 


MOSSJIAN"  (Samuel).     'Sow  Japan;  the  Laadof  the  Rising  Sua  ; 

its  Aim^ils  and  Pro'^ress  ilnriii};;  the  past  Twenty  Yh.iu'.-j,  reconiin^  the 
remarkable  Progress  of  the  Japanese  in  Western  CiviUsatiou.  With 
Map.    Svo.     los, 

MOZLBY"   (Canom).    Treatise    on   the   Augustiaiaa    doctrias    of 

Predestination.     Crown  Svo.    ds. 

Primitive  Doctrine  of  Baptismal  Regeneration.   Post  Svo. 

MUIRHEAD  (Jas.).  Tac  Vanx-de-Vira  of  Maistre  Jean  Le  Houx, 
Advocate  of  Vire.  Translated  ani  Edited.  With  Portrait  and  Illtis- 
trations.    Svo.    21s. 

MCTNRO'S  (General)  Life  and  Letters.     By  Rev.  G.  K.  Gleig. 

Post  Svo.    3s.  6d. 
MURCHISON  (Sir  Roderick).     Siluria  ;   or,   a  History  of  the 

Oldest  rocks  containing  Orsanic  Remains.  Map  and  Plates.    Svo.    IBs. 

— — — ^ Memoirs.     With  Notices  of  his  Contemporaries, 

iind  Rise  and  Progress  of  PaUuazoic  Geology,  liy  AitCHiBiLD  Geikie. 
Portraits.    2  Vols.    Svo.    30.s. 

MURRAY'S  RAILWAY   READING,     Containing:— 


Wrllinoto:*.    By  Lord  Kt,LKaM»ftK.    6rf. 

NlMKOilOHTHB    ChaSB,  U-. 

Music  and   Dassa.   -l«_ 
MiLM.\,r*'9  Fall  o?  Jhbusalkm.     ]<• 

MaSOIV'S  "FOBtt-FlVK."      'M. 

Li?ii  OP  Thbouubb   Hooa.    U. 
OssDS  OP  Naval  D.iai.'^ft.     :ii.  6rf. 
Tas  QoXBT  Bbb.    U. 
jfiaop's  Fablkh.     'Zi.od. 
Niu&oD  ON  THB  Tuaf.    \m.  ad. 


JMiaoN'a  Joan  of  Arc.    I«. 
H-KAry'a  EMiaBAwr.    '2a.  dd. 
NiMttort  ON  TUB  Road.     U, 
Chokkk  on  tuk    GruiLi.oTin  b.     U. 

ilo..I,WAY'8     NOBWAY.       -8, 

Maijbri/s  Wkllinston.     ii,6rf. 
Campbkll's   LiKJi  OF  Bacon.    '2$.6i. 

TaS  FLOlVBft  GABDB.t.  1«. 
RrJECTKD  ADDBK3S8a.  1«. 
PkNN's   HtNTtj  ON    ANeLINA.      U. 


MUSTERS*  (Capt.)  Patagoniaus ;  a  Year's  Wanderings  over 
Uatrodden  Grouud  tVom  tlie  Straits  of  M^ig^Uau  to  the  Rio  Negro. 
Illustrations.    Post  Svo.      7^.  fvL 

NAPIER  (Sir  AYk.).    English  Battles  and  Sieges  of  the  Peninsular 

War.     Portrait.     Post  Svo.    9s. 

NAPOLEON  AT  FoNTAiNEBLEAu  AND  Elba.  A  Joumal  of 
Occurrences  and  Notes  of  Conversations.  By  Sir  Nkil  Gampuell, 
C.B.  "With  a  Memoir.  By  Kkv,  A.  N.  C.  Maclachlan,  M.A.  Portrait 
Svo.    155. 

NARES  (Sir  George),  R.N.     Official  Report  to  the  Admiralty  of 

the  receat  Arctic  Expedition.     Map.    S\^o.    2^,  (Sd. 

ITASMYTH  AND  CARPEISTTER.    The   Moon.     Considered  as  a 

Planet,  a  World,  and  a  SafeUitii.     With  Illustrations  from  Drawings 
made  with  the  aid  of  Poiverful  Telescopes,  Woodcuts,  &a.    4to.    30s. 

NAUTICAL    ALMANAC    (Thk).     {By  AiUhoriti).)      2s.  6c?.  ' 

NAVY  LIST.    (Monthly  and  Quarterly.)    Post  Svo. 

NEW    TESTAMENT.     With   Short    Explanatory  Commentary. 

By  ARcnoEACo.v  Chhrtok,  M.A.,  and  ARCHt>EACON  Basil  Joxes,  M.A. 

With  110  authentic  Views,  &c.    2  Vols.    Crowj  Svo     21s.  bound. 

NEWTH  (Samuel).  First  B)ok  of  Natural  Philosophy;  an  Intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  Statics,  liyiiainics,  Hydrostatics,  I..igl)t,  ll-!at, 
and  Sound,  with  numerous  Examples.  New  and  enlarged  edition. 
Small  Svo.    3s.  6i. 

Elements  of  Mechanics,  including  Hydrostatics, 

with  numerous  Kxamplee.     Small  Svo.    8s.  &d. 

Mathematical  Examples.        A  Graduated  Series 


of  Elementary  Examples  in  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  Logarithms,  Trigo- 
nometry, and  Alechanics.     Small  Svo.    Ss.  6<i. 

NICHOLS'  (J.  G.)  Pilgrimages  to  Walsingham  and  Canterbury. 

By  Erasmus.  Translated,  with  Notes.  With  Illustrations.  Post  Svo.  6s. 
(Sir   George)   History   of   the  English  Poor  Laws. 

•2  Vols.    8vo. 


NICOLAS    (Sir  Harris)   Historic  Peerage   of  England.     Eihi- 

biting  the  Origin,  Descent,  and  Present  State  of  every  Title  of  Peer- 
age which  has  existed  in  this  Country  since  the  Conquest.  By 
William  Coubthope.    8vo.    30«. 

NIMROD,  On  the  Chace— Turf— and  Eoad.    With  Portrait  and 

Plates.    Crown  8vo.  5s.    Orwith  Coloured  Plates,  7s.  Crf. 

NOEDHOFF  (Chas.).  Communistic  Societies  of  the  United 
States ;  including  Detailed  Accounts  of  the  Shakers,  The  Amana, 
Oneida,  Bethell,  Aurora,  Icarian  and  other  existing  Societies;  with 
Particulars  of  their  Keligious  Creeds,  Industries,  and  Preseat  Condi- 
tion.    With  40  Illustrations.    8vo.     15s. 

NOETHCOTE'S  (Sir  John)  Notebook  in  the  Long  Parliament. 
Containing  Proceedings  during  its  First  Session,  1640.  Edited,  with 
a  Memoir,  by  A.  H.  A.  Hamilton.     Crown  8 vo.    9s. 

OAVEN  (LiEUT.-CoL.).    Principles  and  Practice  of  Modern  Artillery, 

including  Artillery  Material,  Gunnery,  and  Organisation  and  Use  ol 
Artillery  in  Warfare.    With  Illustrations.     8vo.     15s. 

OXENHAMXEev.  W.).  English  Notes  for  Latin  Elegiacs  ;  designed 
for  early  Proficients  in  the  Art  of  Latin  Versification,  with  Prefatory 
Rules  of  Composition  in  Elegiae  Metre.    12mo.    3s.  6d. 

PALGEAVE  (E.  H.  L).     Local  Taxation  of  Great  Britain  and 

Ireland.    8vo.    5s. 
— Notes  on   Banking  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 

Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Hamburg,  with  some  Remarks  on  the  amount 
of  Bills  in  circulation,  both  Inland  and  Foreign.    8vo.    Gs. 

PALLISEE  (Mrs.).  Brittany  and  its  Byeways,  its  Inhabitants, 
and  Antiquities.     With  Illustrations.    Post  Svo.     126-. 

— Mottoes  for  Monuments,  or  Epitaphs  selected  for 

General  Use  and  Study.    With  Illustrations.    Crown  Svo.    7s.  6d. 

PAEIS  (Dr.)  Philosophy  in  Sport  made  Science  in  Earnest  ; 
or,  the  First  Principles  of  Natural  Philosophy  inculcated  by  aid  of  the 
Toys  and  Sports  of  Youth.    Woodcuts.  Post  Svo.  7s.6d. 

PAEKYNS'  (Mansfield)  Three  Years'  Eesidence  in  Abyssinia : 
with  Travels  in  that  Country.    With  Illustrations.    Post  Svo.    7s.  6d. 

PEEK  PEIZE  ESSAYS.  The  Maintenance  of  the  Church  of 
England  as  an  Established  Church.  By  Kev.  Chables  Hole — Rev. 
R,  Watson  Dixon— and  Kev.  Julius  Lloyd.    Svo.    10s.  6d. 

PEEL'S  (Sir  Eobert)  Memoirs.     2  Vols.     Post  Svo.     15s. 

PENN  (Eiohard),  .Maxims  and  Hints  for  an  Angler  and  Chess- 
player.   Woodcuts.    Fcap.  Svo.    Is. 

PEECY    KJoHN,     M.D.).      Metallurgy.       Ist    Division.  —  Fuel, 

Wood,  Peat,  Coal,  Charcoal,  Coke.  Fire-Clays.  A'eic  Edition.  With 
Illustrations.     Svo.    30s. 

2nd  Division. — Copper,  Zinc,  and  Brass.   New  Edition. 

With  Illustrations.      '  [In  the  Press. 

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Illustrations.  [In  Preparation, 

f  4th  Division. — Lead,  including  part  of  Silver.      With 

Illustrations.    30s. 
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Cobalt,  Antimony,  Bismuth,  Arsenic,  and  other  Metals.  With  Illus- 
trations. [In  Preparation, 


PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY.  26 


PHILLIPS'  (John)  Memoirs  of  William  Smith.  8vo.  7s.6d. 

Geology   of  Yorksliire,    The  Coast,    and  Limestone 

District.  Plates.    2  Vols.    4to.    31s.  6d.  each. 

Eivers,    Mountains,   and   Sea   Coast    of    Yorkshire. 


With    Essays    oa   the    Climate,  Scenery,  and   Ancient  Inhabitants. 
Plates.  8vo.   15s. 

(Samuel).  Literary  Essays  from  "  The  Times."    "With 


Portrait.     2  Vols.    Fcap.Svo.    7s. 

POPE'S  (Alexander)  Works.  With  Introductions  and  Notes, 
by  Rev.  Whitwell  Elwin.  Vols.  I.,  II.,  VI.,  VII.,  VIII.  With  Per- 
traits.    8vo.    105. 6d.  each. 

PORTEE  (Rev.  J.  L.).  Damascus,  Palmyra,  and  Lebanon.  Witli 
Travels  among  the  Giant  Cities  ofBashan  and  the  Hauran.  Map  and 
Woodcuts.    Post  8vo.    7t.  6d. 

PRAYER-BOOK  (Illustrated),  with  Borders,  Initials,  Vig- 
nettes, &c.  Edited,  with  Notes,  by  Rev.  Thos.  James.  Medium 
8vo.    18s.  cloth  ;  3U.  6d.  calf;  36!.  morocco. 

PRINCESS  CHARLOTTE  OP  WALES.  A  Brief  Memoir. 
With  Selections  from  her  Correspondence  and  other  unpublished 
Papers.    By  Lady  Rose  Weigall.   With  Portrait.    Svo.  8s.  Gd. 

PUSS  IN  BOOTS.    With  12  Illustrations.     By  Otto  Speckter, 

16mo.     Is.  6d.    Or  coloured,  24.  6d. 
PRIVY    COUNCIL   JUDGMENTS   in   Ecclesiastical    Cases   re- 
lating to  Doctrine   and    Discipline.       Witli  Historical    IntroductioD, 
by  G.  C.  Brodbick  and  W.  H.  Fkejiantlb.    Svo.     10s.  6d. 

QUARTERLY  REVIEW  (The).    Svo.    6s. 

RAE  (Edward).     Country  of  the  Moors.    A  Journey  from  Tripoli 

in  Barbary  to  the  Holy  City  of  Kairwau.     Map  and  Etchings.    Crown 
Svo.  10s.  6d. 

RAMBLES  in  the  Syrian  Deserts.    Post  Svo.    lOs.  6d. 

EASSAM  (Hormuzd).  Narrative  of  the  British  Mission  to  Abys- 
sinia. With  Notices  of  the  Countries  Traversed  from  Massowah  to 
Magdala.    Illustrations.     2  Vols.    Svo.    2Ss. 

RAWLINSON'S  (Canon)  Herodotus.  A  New  English  Ver- 
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Five  Great  Monarchies  of  Chaldsea,  Assyria,  Media, 

Babylonia,  and  Persia.  With  Maps  and  Illustrations.  3  Vols.  Svo.  42s. 

(Sir  Henry)  England  and  Russia  in  the  East ;  a 


Series  of  Papers  on  the  Political  and  Geographical  Condition  of  Central 
Asia.    Map.    Svo.     12s. 

REED  (E,  J.),  Shipbuilding  in  Iron  and  Steel;  a  Practical 
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Iron  -  Clad    Ships ;    their    Qualities,    Performances,    and 

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Illustrations.    Svo.    12s. 
Letters  from  Russia  in  1875.     Svo. 


REJECTED  ADDRESSES  (The).     By  James  and  Horace  Smith. 

Woodcuts.    Post  Svo.  3s.  Gd. ;  or  Popular  Edition,  Fcap.  Svo.  Is. 

EEYNOLDS'  (Sir  Joshua)  Life  and  Times.  By  C.  E.  Leslie, 
R.A.  and  Tom  Taylor.    Portraits.    2  Vols.    Svo.    42s. 

EICAEDO'S  (David)  Political  Works.  With  a  Notice  of  his 
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EIPA  (Father).  Thirteen  Years'  Eesideuce  at  the  Court  of  Peking. 
Post  Svo.    2s. 


26  LIST  OF  "WORKS 


ROBERTSON  (Canon).     History  of  the  CLristian  Church,  from 

the  Apostolic  Age  to  the  Retormation,'1517.    Lihrary  Ed'Uioic.    4  Vols. 
8vo.      Cahinet  Edition.    8  Vols.     Post  Svo.     tis.  eacli. 

ROBINSON  (Rev.  Dk.).    Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine  and  the 

Adjacent  Kegions,  1S38 — 52.     Maps.   3  Vols.    Svo.   42«. 
PhysicalGeographyof  theHolj-Land.  Post  Svo.  10s.  6f7. 

(Wm.)  Alpine  Flowers  for  English  Gardens.     With 

70  Illustration.s.     Crown  Svo.    12s. 
■ Wild   Garden;    or,   our  Groves  and   Shrubberies 


made  beautiful  by  the  Naturalization   ot  Hardy  Exotic  Plants.     "With 

Frontispiece.    Siiiall  Svo.    (is. 
• — — Sub-Tropical  Garden  ;  or,  Beauty  of  Form  in  the 

Flower  Garden.     With  lUustratious.    Small  Svo.     7*.  6rf. 
ROBSON   (E.  R.).     School  Architecture.     Being  Practical  Re- 

mark.s   on   the  Planning,  Designing,    Buihiiiig,    and    Furnishiag  of 

Scliool-houses.     With  3C'0  Illustrations.     Medium  Svo.    ISj. 
ROME  (History  of).    See  Liddell  and  Smith. 
ROWLAND  (David).    Laws  of  Nature  the  Foundation  of  Morals. 

Post  8vo.     6f. 

BUXTON  (Geo.  F.).  Travels  in  Mexico;  with  Adventrs.  among  Wild 
Tribes  and  Animals  of  the  Prairies  and  KockyiI)an  tains.  PostSvo.  ZsSd. 

SALE'S  (Sir  Robert)  Brigade  in  Afi'ghanistan.  With  an  Account  of 
the  Defence  of  Jelialabad.    By  Rev.  G.  K.  Gleiq.    Post  Svo.    2s. 

SCEPTICISM  IN  GEOLOGY;  and  the  Reasons  for  It.  An 
assemblage  of  facts  from  Nature  combining  to  invalidate  and  refute  the 
theory  ot  "Causes  now  in  Action."  By  Veeiwek.  Woodcuts. 
Crown  Svo.  6s. 

SCHLIEMANN  (Dr.  Henry).  Troy  and  Its  Remains.  A  Narra- 
tive of  Researches  aad  Discoveries  made  on  the  Site  of  Iliiuu.  and  in  the 
Troian Plain.  With  Maps,  Views,  and  50  J  Illu.^tratioas.  Medium  Svo.  42s. 

Discoveries  on  the   Sites  of  Ancient  Mycenae 

and  Tiryns.    With  Maps  and  500  Illustrations,  Medium  Svo.    50s. 

SCOTT  (Sir  G.  G.).  Secular  and  Domestic  Architecture,  Present 
and  Future.    Svo.    9s. 

(Dean)  University  Sermons.  Post  Svo.  85.  &d. 

SCROPE  (G.  P.).     Geology   and  Extinct  Volcanoes  of  Central 

France.    Illustrations.    Medi>im  Svo.   30.s. 
SELBORNE  (Lord).     Notes   on  some  Passages  in  the  Liturgical 
History  of  the  Reformed  English  CUurch.    Svo.    6s. 

SHADOWS   OF   A    SICK  ROOM.     With  a  Preface  by  Canon 

LiDDON.    16mo.     23.  6rf. 

SHAH  OF  PERSIA'S  Diary  during  his  Tour  through  Europe  in 
1S73.  Translated  from  the  Original.  By  -J.  W.  Redhouse.  With 
Portrait  and  Coloured  Titlu.     Crown  Svo.     12s. 

SMILES'   (Samuel)  W0RK:S  :— 

British  Engixeers  ;  from  the  Earliest  Period  to  the  death  of 

the  Stephenson-i.    With  Illustrations.    5  Vols.  Crown  Svo.    7s.  6i.  each. 

Life    of   a    Scotch  Naturalist.      With  Portrait  and  lUus- 
tratioos.    Crown  Svo.  lO-.  &d. 

Huguenots  in  E^'GL.t^■D  and  Ireland.     Crown  Svo.    7s.  6cZ.    ' 

Self-Help.      With   Illustrations  of  Conduct  and  Persever- 
ance.   PostSvo.  6s.    Or  in  French,   5.'. 

Character.     A  Sequel  to  "  Self-Help."     Post  Svo.    6s. 

Thrift.     A  Book  of  Domestic  Counsel.    PostSvo.     6s. 

Industrial  Biography;   or,  Iron  Workers  and  Tool  Makers  . 
Post  Svo.    6s. 

Boy's  Voyage  Round  THE  World,    Illu.strations.     Post  Svo.  65. 


PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY.  27 

SMITH'S  (Dr.    W.ai.).  "  DICTION"ARIBS  :— 

DicrioxARV  OP  Tna  Bible;  its  Antiquities,  Biograpliy, 
Geography,  aad  Natural  History.    Illustrations.    3  Vols.  8vo.  lOoi. 

Concise  Bible  Dictionary.  Witk  300  Illustratioas.  MeJiuui 
870.    21s. 

Smaller  Bible  ;.  Dictionary.  ]  With  Illustrations.  Post 
Svo.    7s.  6i. 

Christian  Antiquities.  Comprisiug  the  History,  Insti- 
tutions, and  Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Caiirch.  With  lUustratious, 
Vol.1.    Svo.    3i.s.(id.     (Tj  be  completed  in  2  vols.) 

Ghristlin  BioGRAPur,  Literature,  Sects,  and  Do:;trines; 
frjtu  the  Tiinei  of  thi  Apiscles  to  the  Age  of  Charlema^ue.  Vol.  I.  Svo 
3ls.6d.    (To  bj  ompletei  ia  3  vols.) 

Oreek  and  Ro.man  ANTiiiJiTiES.  With  500  Illustratioas. 
Jledlum  Svo.    28s. 

Greek  and  Roman  Biographt  and  Mythologt.  With  600 
lUustratisjs.    3  Vols.     Medium  Svo.    4i.  4.s. 

CrREEK  AND  RoMAN  GEOGRAPHr.  2  Vols.  With  500  Illustra- 
tions.   Medium  Svo.    56s. 

Atlas  of  Ancient  Geography — Biblical  and  Classical. 
Folio.    61.  6s. 

Classical  Dictionary  op  Mythology,  Biography,  a:^d 
Geoqraimt.     I  Vol.     With  750  Woodcuts.   Svo.    18s. 

Smaller  Classical  Dictionary.    With  200  Woodcuts.   Crowa 

8vo.    7s.  6d. 
Smaller  Greek  and  Rdman  Antiquities.     With  200  Wood- 
cuts.   Crowa  Svo.    7s.  6d. 
Complete  Latin-English  Dictionary,    With  Tables  of  the 

Koman  Calendar,  Measures,  Weij^hts,  and  Money.    Svo.    21s. 
Smaller  Latin-English  Dictionary.     12mo.     7s.  6d.    ' 
Copious  AND  Critical  English-Latin  Dictionary.     Svo.    2U. 
Smaller  English-Latin  Dictionary.     12ino.  7s.  6d. 
SillTH'S  (Dr.  Wm.)  EtiTaLBH  COURSE:— 

School  Manual  of  Engllsh  Grammar,  with  Copious  E.xekcises. 

Post  Svo.    3s.  6c?. 
School  Manual    of    Modern    Geography,    Physical    and 

Political.     PoitSvo.     5s. 
Primary  English  Grammar.     ISmo.     1.3. 
Primary  History  op  Britain.     12aio.    25.  6il.] 
SMITH'S  (Dr.  Wm.)  FRE^iTCH  COURSE :—  '       - 

French  Principia.      Part  I.  A    First  Course,  coataiaing  a 

Grammar,  Delectus,  E.tercises,  and  Vocibularies.    12mo.    3s.  Si. 
French   Principia.     Part  H.     A  Reading  Bjok,  coatainiag 

Fables,  Stories,  and  Ano.cJotes,  Natural  History,  ani  Scenes  from   the 

History  of  France.     With  Grararaaticil  Q  lestions,  Notes  and  copious 

Etymolosrical  Dictionary.     12(iio.     4».  6i. 
French  Pri.vcipia.     Part  Hi.  Pros3  Composition,  CDntaiaing 

a  Systematic  Cou'-se  of  E.^ercises  on  the  Synta.t,  with  the  Principal 

Rules  of  Syntax.    12mo.  [It  the  Press. 

Student's  -French   Grammar.      By  C.  Heron- Wall.     With 

Introduction  by  M.  L'ttrc.    Post  Svo.    7s.  67. 
Smaller   Grammar  op   the  French   Language,  j  Abridged 

from  the  above.    12mo.    3s.  6J. 


28  LIST  OF  WORKS 


SMITH'S  (Dii.  Wm.)  GEEMAN  COUESE  :— 

Gi;rmak  PiaKciriA.  Part  I.  A  First  German  Course,  con- 
taining a  Grdnimar,  Delectus,  Exercise  Book,  and  Vocabularies. 
12nio.    OS.  6d. 

Gkrjiax  Pkikcii'IA.  Part  II.  A  Eeading  Book  ;  containing 
Fables,  Stories,  and  Anfcdotes,  Natural  History,  and  Scenes  from  the 
History  of  Germany.  AVilb  Grammatical  Questions,  Notes,  and  Dic- 
tionary.   12mo.  OS.  Gd. 

Practical  German  Grammar.     Post  8vo.     3s.  6tZ.' 
SMITH'S  (Dk.  Wm.)  LATIN  COUilSE:— 

PiUNCii'iA  Latika.     Part  I.  First  Latin  Course,  containing  a 

Grammar,  Delectus,and  Exercise  Book,  with  Vocabularies.  I'irao.  3s. 6d. 

*„*  In  tliis  Edition  the  Cases  of  the  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and  Pronouns 

are  arranged  both  as  in  the  ordinary  Grammars  and  as  in  the  Public 

School  Primer,  together  with  the   corresponding   Exercises. 

Appendix  to  Pkikcifia  Latina  Part  I. ;  being  Additional 
Exercises,  with  Examination  Papers.     12mo.    2s.  6<i. 

Principia  Latina.  Part  II.  A  Eeading-book  of  Mythology, 
Geography,  Roman  Antiquities,  and  History.  With  Notes  and  Dic- 
tionary.    12mo.    3s.  Gd. 

Principia  Latina.     Part  III.     A  Poetry  Book,     Hexameters 

and  Pentameters;  Eclog.  Ovidianas;  Latin  Prosody.  12mo.    3s.  Gd. 
Principia  Latina.     Part  IV.     Prose  Composition.     Eules  of 

Syntax    with   Examples,  Explanations  of  Synonyms,  and  Exercises 

on  the  Syntax.     12mo.     3s.  Gd. 
Principia  Latina.     Part  Y.  Short  Tales   and  Anecdotes  for 

Translation  into  Latin.    12mo.    3s. 
Latin-English     Vocabulary     and     First      Latin-English 

Dictionary  fur  Ph^edrus,Corsehus  Nepos,  andC.t-:sar.  12mo.  3s. Gd. 
Student's  Latin  Grammar.     Post  8vo.    6s. 
Smaller  Latin  Grammar.     12mo.     3s.  6d. 
Tacitus,    Germania,   Agricola,    &c.      AYith   English  Notes. 

l-.!mo.    3s.  Gd. 

SMITH'S  (Dr.  Wm.)  GEEEK  COUESE  :— 

iNiTiAGRiECA.  Parti.  A  First  Greek  Course,  containing  a  Gram- 
mar, Delectus,  and  Exercise-book.     "With  Vocabularies.    12mo.  3s.  Gd, 

Initia  Gr^ca.  Part  U.  A  Eeading  ^  Book.  Containing 
Short  Tales,  Anecdotes,  Fables,  Mythology,'  and  Grecian  History. 
12mo.    3s.  Gd. 

Initia  Grjeca.  Part  III.  Prose  Composition.  Containing  the 
Kules  of  Syntax,  with  copious  Examples  and  Exercises.  112mo.    3s.  Gd, 

Student's  Greek  Grammar.    By  Curtius.    Post  8vo.   6s. 

Smaller  Greek  Grammar.     12mo.     3s.  6d. 

Greek  Accidence.     12mo.     2$.  6d. 

Platc.,  ApoLocr  of  Socrates,  &c.  With  Notes.  12mo.  3.s'.  6d. 
SMITH'S  (Dk.  Wm.)  SMALLEE  HISTOEIES  :— 

Scripture  History.     Woodcuts.    16mo.     3s.  6(7. 

Ancient  History.     Woodcuts.   16mo.    3s.  6d. 

Ancient  Geography.    Woodcuts.     16mo.     3s.  6d. 

Rome.    Woodcuts.     16mo.     3s.  6c?. 

Greece.     Woodcuts.    16mo.     3s.  6d. 

Classical  Mythology.  Woodcuts.    16mo.    3s.  6cZ. 

England.   Woodcuts.    16mo.     3s.  Gd. 

English  Literature.      16mo.     3s.   6d. 

Specimens  of  English  Literature.     16mo.     Ss.  6c?. 


PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY.  29 


SHAW  (T.  B.).  Student's  Manual  of  English  Literature.  Post  8vo. 
Is.  6d. 

Specimens   of   English   Literature.      Selected   from   the 


Chief  Writers.     Post  8vo.     7s.  6d. 

(Robert).  Visit  to  High  Tartary,  Yarkand,  and  Kashgar 

(formerly  Chinese  Tartary),  and  Return  Journey  over  the  Karakorum 
Pass.     With  Map  and  Illustrations.    8vo.     16s. 

SIERRA  LEONE  ;  Described  in  Letters  to  Friends  at  Home.  By 
A  Lady.    Post  8vo.    3s.  6U. 

SIMMONS  (Capt.).  Constitution  and  Practice  of  Courts-Mar- 
tial.   Seventh  Edition.    Svo.    15s. 

SMITH  (Philip).  A  History  of  the  Ancient  World,  from  the 
Creation  to  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  a.d.  476.  Fourth  Edition, 
3  Vols.    Svo.     31s.  Gd. 

SPALDING  (Captain).  The  Tale  of  Frithioi.  Translated  from  the 
Swedish  of  Esias  Tegner.    Post  Svo.    7s.  Gd. 

STANLEY'S  (Dean)  WORKS  :— 

Sinai  and  Palestine,  in  connexion  with  their  History,    Map. 

Svo.    14s. 
Bible  in  the  Holy  Land  ;  Extracted  from  the  above  Work. 

Weodcuts.    Fcap.  Svo     2s.  Gd. 
Eastern  Church.    Plans.    Svo.    12s. 

Jewish  Church.     From,  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Christian 

Era.    3  Vols.   Svo.    38.5. 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Corinthians.     Svo.    18s. 

Life  of  Dr.  Arnold,  op  Rugby.    With  selections  from  his 

Correspondence.    With  portrait.   2  vols.    Crown  Svo.    12s. 

Church  op  Scotland.     Svo.     7s.  Qd. 

Memorials    op    Canterbury  Cathedral.      Woodcuts.     Post 

8vo.    7s.  Gd. 
Westminster   Abbey.       With    Illustrations.     Svo.     155. 

Sermons  during  a  Tour  in  the  East.     Svo.    9.?. 

Addresses  and  Charges  of  the  late  Bishop  Stanlet.     With 
Memoir.    Svo.    IDs.  Gd. 

STEPHEN  (Rev.  W.  R.).  Life  and  Times  of  St,  Chrjsostom. 
With  Portrait.    Svo.    15s. 

ST.  JOHN   (Charles),     Wild  Sports  and  Natural  History  of  the 

Highlands.    Post  Svo.    3s.  Gd. 
(Bayle)  Adventures  in  the  Libyan  Desert,  Post  Svo,  2s. 

SUMNER'S  (Bishop)  Life  and  Episcopate'  during  40  Years.  By 
Rev.  G.  II.  SuMXEK.    Portrait.    Svo.    14s. 

STREET  (G.  E.)  Gothic  Architecture  in  Spain.  From  Personal 
Observations  made  during  several  Journeys.  With  Illustrations. 
Koyal  Svo.    30s. 

Italy,  chiefly  in  Brick  and 

Marble.    With   Notes  of  Tours  in   the   North  of  Italy,    AVith  60  Il- 
lustrations.   Royal  Svo.    28s. 


30  LIST  OF  WORKS 


STUDENTS'  MANUALS:— 

Old  TESTijiENT  Fiptoky  ;  from  <he  Creation  to  the  IJeturn  of 

tlie  Jews  from  Captivity.     Maps  ami  Woodcuts.     Post  Svo.     Js.  frA 

New  Testa mkkt  Histopy.  With  an  Intr'^duction  connecting 
tlie  History  ot  the  Old  aud  New  Testaments.  Maps  aud  Woodcuts, 
Post  Svo.    7s.  ed. 

EcciESiASTiCAL  FisTOKV.     A  Hiptrrj"  of  <he  Christian  Church 

during   the  First  Ten  Ctnturies;    Frnni    Its    Foimdatirn  to  the  fulJ 

establishment  ot  the  Holy  Konian  En'piie  and  the  Papal  Power,    Post 

tvo.     7*.  6d. 
English  Church  Histokt,  from  the  acee?fion  of  Henry  VIII. 

to  the  silenc'ng  of  Convocation  in  the  18th  Century.     By  Kev.  G.  G. 

Perky.    Post  &vo.     7s.  6rf. 
Ancient  Histoey  of  the  East;  Egypt,  Assyiia,  Babylonia, 

Jledia,  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  and  Phcenic  a.   Woodcuts.   Post  Svo.  7s.  6d, 
Ancient  Geography.      By   Key.   W,   L.  Bevan.    Woodcuts, 

Post  8vo.     7s.  Pd. 

History  of  Greece  ;  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Roman 
Conquest.    Ky  Wm.  Smith,  P  C.L.     W^nodcuts.     Crown  Svo.    7s.  6d, 
*♦*  Questif  ns  on  the  above  Work,  12nio.     2s. 

History  of  Eojie  ;  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Estal> 
lishment  of  the  Empire.  By  Deak  Liddell.  Woodcuts,  Crown  Svo. 
7s.  6d. 

Gibbon's  Decline  AND  Fall  OF  THE  PoMAN  Empire,  Woodcuts. 

Post  Svo.    7s.  Sd. 

Hallam's    History    of    Europe    during  the  Middle   Ages. 

Post  8vo.    7s.  6('. 
Hallam's    History  of    England  ;    from    the    Accession    of 

Henry  VII.  to  the  Deatli  of  George  II.    Post  Svo.    7s.  6(/. 

Hume's  History  of  England  from  the  invasion  of  Julius 
Cfesar  to  ihe  Kevohttion  in  16SS.  C'ontiiined  down  to  1868.  Wood- 
cuts.   Post  Svo.    "«,  dd. 

*»•  Questions  on  the  above  Woik,  12mn.    2s. 

History  of  France:  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Estab- 
lishment of  the  Spcoi  d  Empire,  1652.  By  Rev,  H.  W.  Jervis.  Wood- 
cuts,   Post  Svo.     7s.  6rf. 

English  Language,      By  Geo.  P,  Marsh,     Post  8ro.     7s.  6^?. 

English  Liteeatuke.     By  T.  B.  Shaw,  M.A,  Post  Svo,  7s.  6(7. 

Specimens  of  English  Literature  from  the  Chief  Writers. 
By  T.  H.  Shaw.    Post  Svo.    7s.  6('. 

Modern  Geography  ;  Mathematical,  Physical  and  Descriptive. 
By  PvEV.W.L.  Bevan,  Woodcuts.  Post  8vo,  7s.  6d. 

Moral  Philosophy.     By  William  Fleming,  D.D.     Post  Svo. 

7s,  6d. 
Blackstone's  Commektaeifs  on  the  Laws  of  England,     By 

R.  Mauolm  Keek,  LL.D.    Post8vo.     7s.  6d. 

STYFFE  (Knutt),     Strength  of  Iron  and  Steel.    Plates.  Svo.  123. 
SOMEEVILLE  (Mart).    Personal  Eecollections  from  Early  Life 

to  Old  Age.     With  her  Correspondence,     Portrait.     Crown  Svo.    12j. 

— Physical  Geography.     Portrait.     Post  Svo.   9s. 

Connexion   of   the  Physical  Sciences.    Portrait. 

Post  Svo,    9s. 

Molecular    and   Microscopic    Science.      Illustra- 


tions.   2  Vols.    Post  Svo.    21 «. 


PUBLISHED  BY  MR,  MURRAY.  31 

STANHOPE'S  (Earl)  WOEKS  :— 

HlSTOET     OF    EkGLAKD    FROM     THE    ReION     OF    QtJEEN  AnNE     TO 

THE  Peace  OF  Vep.saillks,  1701-83.     9  vols.    Post  8vo.    5s.  each. 
British  India,  from  its  Origin  to  1783.    8vo.     3s.   6«f. 
History  of  "  Forty-Fivk."   Post  8vo.     3s. 
Historical  akd  Critical  Essays     Post  8vo.     3s.  6d. 
French  Ketreat  from  Moscow,  and  other  Essays.     Post  8vo. 

7s.  6fi. 

Life  OP  Belisarios.     Post  8vo.     10s.  6c?. 

Life  of  Conde.     Post  Svo.     3s.  6d, 

Life  of  William  Pitt.     Portraits.      4  Vols.     Svo.     245. 

Miscellakies.    2  Yols.     Post  Svo.     13s. 

Story  of  Joan  of  Arc.    Fcap.  Svo.     Is. 

Addresses  ON  Yarious  Occasions.     16mo.     Is. 

SOIJTHEY   (Robert).      Lives  of  Bunyan  aad  Cromwell.      Post 

8vo.    2*. 

SWAINSON  (Canon).  Kicene  and  Apostles'  Creeds;  Their 
Literary  History  ;  together  with  some  Account  of  "  The  Creed  of  St. 

AtbniKisius."     Svo.     If.c. 

SYBEL  (Yon)  Historj-  of  Europe  during  the  French  Revolution, 

irS0-17P.".     4  Vols.    Svo.     46;<!. 

SYMONDS'  (Rev.  W.)  Records  of  the  Rocks;  or  Notes  on  the 

Geology,  Natural  History,  and  Antiquities  of  North  and  South  Wales, 
Siluria,  IJevon,  aud  Cornwall.     With  Illustrations.   Crown  Svo.  12s. 

THIBATJT'S  (Antoine)  Purity  in  Musical  Art.  Translated  from 
the  German.    With  a  prefatorv  Jlemoir  by  W.   H.  Gladstone,  M.P. 

Post  Svo.    65. 

THIELMANN  (BarokV  Journey  through  the  Caucasus  to 
Tabreez,  Kurdistan,  d'lwn  the  Tif^ris  and  Euphrates  to  Nineveh  and 
I^abylon,  and  across  the  Desert  to  Palmyra.  Translated  by  Cha3. 
Heseage.    Illustrations.     2  Vols.    Post  Svo.    18s. 

THOMS  (W.  J.).  Longevity  of  Man ;  its  Facts  and  its  Fiction. 
Including  Observations  on  the  more  Remarkable  Instances.  Post  Svo. 
10.^-.  6c;. 

THOMSON  (Archbishop).     Lincoln's  Ina  Sermons.   Svo.  lOs.  6d. 

Life  in  the  Light  of  God's  Word.     Post  Svo,     5s. 

T1TL4N'S  LIFE   AND  TIMES.      With    some  account  of  his 

Family,  chiefly  from  new  and  unpublished  Records.     By  Ckowe  and 
Cavat.casei.le.     With  Poitrait  and  illustrations.    2  Vols.    Svo.     42s. 

TOCQUE  VILLE'S  State  of  Society  in  Prance  before  the  Revolution, 

1789,  and  on  the  Causes  which  led  to  that  Event.  Translated  by  Hexby 
Reeve.    Svo.    14.''. 

TOMLINSON  (Charlfs^  ;  The  Sonnet;  Its  Origin,  Structure, and 
Place  in  Poetrv.  With  translations  from  Dante,  Petrarch,  &c.  Post 
Svo.    93. 

TOZER  (Rev.  H.  F.)  Highlands  of  Turkey,  -(vith  Visits  to  Mounts 

Ida,  Athos,  Olympus,  and  Pelion.     2  Vols.    Crown  Svo.    2is. 
Lectures  on  the   Geography  of   Greece.    Map.      Post 

Svo.     Ps. 

TRISTRAM  (Canon)  Great  Sahara.    Illustrations.    Crown  Svo.  15.*. 

Land  of  Moab  ;  Travels  and  Discoveries  on  the  East 

Side  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Jordan.   lUustiations.    Crown  Svo.  ISs. 


82      LIST  OF  WORKS  PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  MURRAY. 
TWENTY  YEARS'  RESIDENCE  among  the  Greeks,  Albanians, 

Turks,  Armenians,  and  Bulgarians.     By  an  English  Lady,     Edited 
by  Stanlev  Laki:  Poole.    2  Vols.    Crown  8vo. 

TWISLETON  (Edwakd),  The  Tongue  not  Essential  to  Speech, 
with  Illustrations  of  the  Power  of  Speech  in  the  case  of  the  African 
Confessors.    Post  8vo.   6s. 

TWISS'  (Hokace)  Life  of  Lord  Eldon.    2  Vols.    Post  Svo.    21s. 
TYLOR  (E.  B.)  Early  History  of   Mankind,  and  Development 

of  Civilization.    Svo.    12s. 

.^ Primitive  Culture ;  the  Development  of  Mythology, 

Philosophy,  Religion,  Art,  and  Custom.    2  Vols.    Svo.    24s. 

VAMBERY  (Arminius)  Travels  from  Teheran  across  the  Turko- 
man Desert  on  the  Eastern  Shore  of  the  Caspian.  Illustrations.  Svo.  21s. 

VAN  LENNEP  (Henry     J.)    Travels    in   Asia  .  Minor.     With 

Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literature,  and  Archjeology.  With  Woodcuts. 
2  Vols.    Post  Svo.    24j. 

Modern  Customs  and  Manners  of  Bible  Lands, 

in  illustration  of  Scripture.  With  Maps  and  300  lUustrutions. 
2  Vols.   Svo.    21s. 

VIRCHOW    (Professor).      The    Freedom    of    Science    in    the 

Modern  State.    Fcap.  Svo,    2s. 

WELLINGTON'S  Despatches  during  his  Campaigns  in  India, 
Denmark,  Portugal,  Spain,  the  Low  Countries,  and  France.  S  Vols. 
8vo.    20s.  each. 

. Supplementary  Despatches,  relating  to  India, 

Ireland,  Denmark,  Spanish  America,  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  Con- 
gress of  Vienna,  Waterloo  and  Paris.  14  Vols.  Svo.  20s.  each. 
%*  An  Index.    Svo.    20s. 

Civil  and  Political  Corre.epondence.    Vols.  I.  to 


VII.    Svo.     20s.  each. 

Speeches  in  Parliament.    2  Vols.    Svo.    42s. 


WHEELER  (G.).  Choice  of  a  Dwelling  ;  a  Practical  Handbook  of 
Useful  Information  on  Building  a  House.  Plans.    Post  Svo.     7s.  6d. 

WHITE  (W.  H.).  Manual  of  Naval  Architecture,  for  the  use  of 
Naval  Officers.  Shipo^vners,  Shipbuilders,  and  Yachtsmen.  Illustra- 
tions.   Svo.     24?. 

WILBERFORCE'S  (Bishop)  Life  of  William  Wilberforce.  Portrait. 
Crown  Svo.    6s. 

WILKINSON  (Sir  J.  G.).  Manners  and  Customs  of  the 
Ancient  Egyptians,  their  Private  Life,  Government,  Laws,  Arts,  Manu- 
factures, Religion,  &c.  A  new  edition,  with  additions  by  the  late 
Author.    Edited  by  Samuel  Birch,  LL.D.    Illustrations.    3  ►'ols    Svo. 

Popular  Account  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians.    With 

500  Woodcuts.     2  Vols.     Post  Svo.    12s. 

WOOD'S  (Captain)  Source  of  the  Oxua.  With  the  Geography 
of  the  Valley  of  the  Oxus.    By  Col.  Yule.    Map.    Svo.    12s. 

WORDS  OF  HUMAN  WISDOM.  Collected  and  Arranged  by 
E.  S.    With  a  Preface  by  Canojj  Liddon,    Fcap.  Svo.    3s.  6d. 

WORDSWORTH'S  (Bishop)  Athens  and  Attica.  Plates,     Svo.  5s. 

YULE'S  (Colonel)  Book  of  Marco  Polo.  Illustrated  by  the  Light 
of  Oriental  Writers  and  Modem  Travels.  With  Maps  and  SO  Plates. 
2  Vols.    Medium  Svo.    63s. 

ERADBURT,  AGNEW,   &  CO.,  PRINTERS,  WHITEFEIARS. 


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Bllirft,    Fanny  Janet   (Sandison) 
The  people  of  Turkey 


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